Host: oriental moth (aka slug-caterpillar moth; Monema flavescens, family Limacodidae). Parasitoid: tachina fly (family Tachinidae). The caterpillar looks like a slug but has many toxic spikes which can sting horribly. And the cocoon has an extremely hard shell. Are they untouchable for natural enemies? No, touchable. The female tachina fly had laid an egg on/in the moth caterpillar/pupa and the maggot had grown inside the living host. What an arms race in the evolution of life! Tachina flies can be used as biological pest control (biocontrol). Music : Breaking Point - Phoenix 5月にフィールドでイラガの繭を一つ採集し、物好きにも室内飼育していました。7月も末になりそろそろ羽化する頃かと注意していたら、一匹の大きなハエが繭から出ました。寄生されていたようです。 蝿の掲示板で質問したところ、ヤドリバエの同定は専門家が標本を精査しないと難しいと教えて頂きました。イラガ科イラガに寄生するヤドリバエとしてはムラタヒゲナガハリバエ、イラムシヤドリバエが記録されているほか、寄主の範囲がかなり広い種もいるので絞り切れないようです。素人判断で白く見えているのはてっきり特殊化した平均棍かと思ったらそうではなく、翅の基部後縁が拡大したものだそうです。覆弁（胸弁、鱗弁、膜弁）と呼ばれる構造で、平均棍はこれに覆われているとのこと。 《参考図書》 『昆蟲の生活と本能』　岩田久二雄 第18章：イラガとその天敵 イラガは天敵と進化史上熾烈な軍拡競争を繰り広げた結果、一見過剰防衛とも思える手段を開発した。幼虫期は悪名高い恐ろしく鋭い棘で身を守り、無防備な蛹は恐ろしく硬い繭を作って中に篭ってしまう。しかし寄生蜂／寄生蝿はその上手を行き、イラガの繭の外から産卵する専門の寄生蜂も知られている。ヤドリバエはイラガの幼虫に産卵するのだろうか。宿主の体内で成長した挙句、宿主に堅固な防御（繭）と脱出口（円形の切れ目）を作らせてから殺すのが凄いと思います。

A Parasitoid Wasp Manipulates the Drive for Walking of Its Cockroach Prey Ram Gal and Frederic Libersat, Current Biology 18, pp. 877-882 (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.04.076) The movie (adapted from "The wasp Ampulex compressa, a predator of the cockroach Periplaneta americana" by Wijnand Heitmans; University of Amsterdam, 1986) shows the main events in the life cycle of A. compressa and the manipulation of its cockroach host. (1) Struggle: A parasitoid wasp locates a cockroach and grabs it by the pronotum. (2) Head sting: The wasp injects a venom cocktail into the prey's cerebral ganglia. The cockroach shown here was anaesthetized and tethered to allow filming from below. (3) Host feeding: The wasp cuts the cockroach's antennae and feeds off hemolymph from the cut end. Notice that the cockroach does not escape the wasp, although it is not paralyzed. (4) Host transportation: The wasp grabs the cockroach by the antenna stump and walks backward toward its nest, while the cockroach follows in a docile manner. Notice the expression of an alternating-tripod gait when the cockroach is following the wasp. (5) Host concealment: The cockroach is inserted into the wasp's nest without resisting or trying to escape. (6) Oviposition: The wasp lays one egg on the cockroach leg and exits the nest. The cockroach stays at the same spot, although it is not paralyzed. (7) Entombment: The wasp collects nearby pieces of paper and seals the entrance to the nest, while the cockroach waits inside. (8) Egg and larval development: A larva hatches from the egg, feeds on hemolymph (not shown), then penetrates the cockroach and consumes the internal organs. It is only at this stage that the cockroach dies and the larva pupates inside the cockroach abdomen. (9) Hatching: around 40 days after the egg has been laid, an adult wasp hatches from the cockroach's abdomen and exits the nest.

Many true parasites and parasitoids modify the behaviour of their host, and these changes are thought to be to the benefit of the parasites. However, field tests of this hypothesis are scarce, and it is often unclear whether the host or the parasite profits from the behavioural changes, or even if parasitism is a cause or consequence of the behaviour. We show that braconid parasitoids (Glyptapanteles sp.) induce their caterpillar host (Thyrinteina leucocerae) to behave as a bodyguard of the parasitoid pupae. After parasitoid larvae exit from the host to pupate, the host stops feeding, remains close to the pupae, knocks off predators with violent head-swings, and dies before reaching adulthood. Unparasitized caterpillars do not show these behaviours. In the field, the presence of bodyguard hosts resulted in a two-fold reduction in mortality of parasitoid pupae. Hence, the behaviour appears to be parasitoid-induced and confers benefits exclusively to the parasitoid. Grosman AH, Janssen A, de Brito EF, Cordeiro EG, Colares F, et al. (2008) Parasitoid Increases Survival of Its Pupae by Inducing Hosts to Fight Predators. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2276. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002276

A seemingly normal caterpillar in Sabah, Borneo, is overturned to reveal emerging parasitoids

Two larvae of the white admirals (Limenitis camilla japonica, family Nymphalidae) were spotted on their favourite leaves of Weigela hortensis. They were alive and (barely) active even though carrying the burden of white cocoons of parasitoid wasps (family Braconidae?). Did parasitoid wasps intentionally let the poor host to live in order to fend off other predators from their cocoons? (parasite control) Late-July 2008 in Japan. Music : The Institute of Contemporary Music - Triangulum Galaxy *part 1: http://youtube.com/watch?v=bUhXGZTngFc part 2: http://youtube.com/watch?v=HaE2IT00QsQ 林道沿いのタニウツギの葉にイチモンジチョウ幼虫を2匹発見。表面に寄生蜂の白い繭が付着している（それぞれ10、13個）。イチモンジチョウ幼虫の体内に産み付けられた寄生蜂の卵から孵化した幼虫が寄生主の血リンパ液を餌として育った後、体表を食い破り造繭したのだろう。どんな寄生蜂が羽化してくるか気になったので採集して飼育開始。 持ち帰ったイチモンジチョウ幼虫は食草に全く口を付けず、容器内を時々歩き回るだけ。突付くと身をよじって反応する。寄生主の幼虫を生かしておいて、他の捕食者から守ってもらうという寄生蜂側の恐るべき企みなのかもしれない。ある種のコマユバチ幼虫は寄生主の体内ホルモンを操作して（幼若ホルモン分解酵素を阻害）蛹化を遅らせるらしい。（パート2羽化篇へ続く）

Adult parasitoid wasps (family Braconidae?) emerged from cocoons on two larvae of white admiral butterfly (Limenitis camilla japonica, family Nymphalidae). The eclosion rate was 100 %. To my surprise, a host caterpillar was alive even after the parasitic exploitation was completed. Early-August 2008 in Japan. Music : Teknostep - Couillonnados part 1: http://youtube.com/watch?v=bUhXGZTngFc *part 2: http://youtube.com/watch?v=HaE2IT00QsQ 体表に白い繭を多数付けたイチモンジチョウの幼虫を飼育していたら、コマユバチの仲間（種名不詳）が羽化しました。驚いたことに寄生主は未だかすかに生きていました。その後蛹にならず幼虫のまま死にました。

Wasps like this will lay eggs inside the nest chamber of solitary bees, and the wasp grub will eat the bee grubs.

This solitary wasp tentatively approaches the nest chamber of a leafcutter bee, senses the occupant, and backs off. It can actually fly backwards really well! Probably one of the ruby-tailed wasps (Chrysididae).

Wasp with its paralyzed pray, a caterpillar. The wasp will lay its eggs on the paralyzed "host," which will nourish the newly hatched young.

A 1.5mm parasitoid wasp with a parasitic mite on its abdomen. Imaged with a Canon Powershot 710IS with a small reversed lens in front. Magnification is about 9X.

A sneaky behavior of a parasitoid wasp that is not very good at finding its own hosts

Parasitoid females sting aphids, injecting an egg into the aphid body

Caterpillar of the moth Thyrinteina leucocerae host of the parasitoid wasp Glyptapanteles which can change the behavior of the catterpilar to protect the pupae. This non-parasitized caterpillar hardly responds to a predator. Suplementary material of the article "Grosman AH, Janssen A, de Brito EF, Cordeiro EG, Colares F, et al. (2008) Parasitoid Increases Survival of Its Pupae by Inducing Hosts to Fight Predators. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2276. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002276" http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002276#s5

The emerald cockroach wasp (Ampulex compressa, also known as the jewel wasp) is a parasitoid wasp of the family Ampulicidae. It is known for its reproductive behavior, which involves using a live cockroach (specificially a Periplaneta americana) as a host for its larva. A number of other venomous animals which use live food for their larvae paralyze their prey. Unlike them, Ampulex compressa initially leaves the roach mobile, but modifies its behaviour in a unique way. As early as the 1940s it was published that wasps of this species sting a roach twice, which modifies the behavior of the prey. A recent study using radioactive labeling proved that the wasp stings precisely into specific ganglia. Ampulex compressa delivers an initial sting to a thoracic ganglion of a roach to mildly paralyze the front legs of the insect. This facilitates the second sting at a carefully chosen spot in the roach's head ganglia (brain), in the section that controls the escape reflex. As a result of this sting, the roach will now fail to produce normal escape responses. The wasp, which is too small to carry the roach, then leads the victim to the wasp's burrow, by pulling one of the roach's antennae in a manner similar to a leash. Once they reach the burrow, the wasp lays an egg on the roach's abdomen and proceeds to fill in the burrow entrance with pebbles, more to keep other predators out than to keep the roach in. The stung roach, its escape reflex disabled, will simply rest in the burrow as the wasp's egg hatches. A hatched larva chews its way into the abdomen of the roach and proceeds to live as an endoparasitoid. Over a period of eight days, the wasp larva consumes the roach's internal organs in an order which guarantees that the roach will stay alive, at least until the larva enters the pupal stage and forms a cocoon inside the roach's body. After about four weeks, the fully-grown wasp will emerge from the roach's body to begin its adult life.

Ormia ochracea is a parasitoid fly that requires a cricket host to complete its life cycle. This video is of the flies responding to a cricket song and falling right into my trap...

An ichneumon wasp (a.k.a. ichneumon fly, family Ichneumonidae) in search of a prey (caterpillar?) to lay eggs in the weedy garden. Late-August 2008 in Japan. 庭の草叢に潜り込んで獲物を探索しているようでした。ヒメバチ科の蜂だと教えて頂きました。

ツガカレハ幼虫の体内に寄生していたコマユバチの仲間？の成虫。繭から離れた後はどの個体もすぐに飛び立つことなく、かなり念入りに身なりを整えています。体を乾かしているのでしょうか。通りすがりのアリが気さくにカメオ出演してくれました。大きさの違いに注目！ Parasitic wasps (Braconidae?) meticulously grooming themselves shortly after eclosion. They had spent larval stage inside the hairy caterpillar of japanese moth, Dendrolimus sperans. A passerby ant played a cameo role ! Mid-April, 2007 in Japan. Music : Heiki - Slow Sign Video Diary part 1: http://youtube.com/watch?v=wykoSNqqv_o part 2: http://youtube.com/watch?v=mii_nmWYGAs part 3: http://youtube.com/watch?v=dG4L4DCb_wk part 4: http://youtube.com/watch?v=oDNSkD-1Pb8 part 5: http://youtube.com/watch?v=Cb_Cfod1P_k *part 6: http://youtube.com/watch?v=nJQ7LI1Firo

wasp spider Vespa pompilidae vermelha arrastando aranha semelhante a caranguejeira muito maior, paralisada por seu veneno.parasitoide parasitoid

Parasitoid flies lay eggs on the caterpillar's food plants which then grow inside the caterpillar and emerge as larva killing the host caterpillar. Once outside they immediately pupate. Schmarotzerfliegen legen Eier auf die Futterplanzen der Raupen. Die Eier entwickeln sich in den Raupen und bohren sich als Larven heraus. Sie selber verpuppen sich dann sofort.

ツガカレハ（カレハガ科）幼虫の体内で育った寄生蜂（コマユバチ科？）の終齢幼虫が絹糸を吐いて繭を紡ぎます。宿主の幼虫はまだ生きているようで（虫の息）、本編後半に弱い蠕動運動が見られる。食い破られた体表の傷口から血液・体液が流れ出たりしないのが不思議...。コマユバチ類の幼虫は寄主の体内で血リンパ液を摂取して育つらしい。（羽化編につづく） [Host] hairy caterpillar of Japanese moth (Dendrolimus sperans, family Lasiocampidae). Still alive? [Parasite] numerous (about 50) small larvae of parasitic wasp making cocoons outside the dying host after mass exodus. Early-April, 2007 in Japan. To watch the eclosion of adult wasps, please click a thumbnail link at the video response. Music : Digital Witchcraft with Habersham - Dangerous Music Video Diary part 1: http://youtube.com/watch?v=wykoSNqqv_o part 2: http://youtube.com/watch?v=mii_nmWYGAs *part 3: http://youtube.com/watch?v=dG4L4DCb_wk part 4: http://youtube.com/watch?v=oDNSkD-1Pb8 part 5: http://youtube.com/watch?v=Cb_Cfod1P_k part 6: http://youtube.com/watch?v=nJQ7LI1Firo

copyright: Ecology and biogeography, UCL, Belgium

野外で採集し飼育を始めたツガカレハ（カレハガ科）幼虫の動きがここ2～3日鈍くなったと思ったら、体を食い破って寄生蜂（コマユバチの一種？）の終齢幼虫が続々と外に出てきて小さな白い繭を紡ぎ始めた。蛾にとっては恐るべき天敵ですが、林業関係者にとっては益虫になるのでしょう。Webカメラを用いて微速度撮影に初挑戦（LiveCapture2でインターバル撮影→動画に変換）。ピント合わせが難しい。（つづく） [Host] hairy caterpillar of japanese moth (Dendrolimus sperans, family Lasiocampidae). Lateral view, head to the left. Still alive? [Parasite] numerous (about 50) small larvae of parasitic wasp spinning cocoons outside the dying host after mass exodus. This is my first time-lapse movie by a webcam. Continue to the next footage for the close-ups. Music : aboca - Mediali Micro Song Video Diary part 1: http://youtube.com/watch?v=wykoSNqqv_o *part 2: http://youtube.com/watch?v=mii_nmWYGAs part 3: http://youtube.com/watch?v=dG4L4DCb_wk part 4: http://youtube.com/watch?v=oDNSkD-1Pb8 part 5: http://youtube.com/watch?v=Cb_Cfod1P_k part 6: http://youtube.com/watch?v=nJQ7LI1Firo

Vespa parasitóide procurando por um hospedeiro. Parasitoid wasp searching for a host.

A female of the scoliid wasp (Scolia oculata?, family Scoliidae) visited white flowers of Patrinia villosa (family Valerianaceae) for nectars. As you see, she acts as a pollinator. And they are known to be a parasitoid on the underground grubs of scarabaeid beetle. Late-August 2008 in Japan. オトコエシの花で蜜を吸っていました。体中花粉まみれ。ツチバチの仲間だと教えて頂きました。キオビツチバチと似ている気がします。触角が短く、黄色紋がつながってないので♀？　地中に潜むコガネムシの幼虫に産卵するそうです。

先日公開した動画では小さ過ぎてよく見えないとの指摘を受けたので、拡大処理してみました。 ツガカレハ幼虫の体内に寄生していたコマユバチの一種？が繭を作ってから8日後に成虫が続々と羽化し始めた。微速度撮影（9:10-16:35）のインターバルは 午前中が15秒、午後10秒。自然光下で撮ると光量が不安定で動画にしたときに画面がちらつきますね。 ハチ類の羽化を観察するのは初めて。白い繭の端に切れ込みが入りパカッと開いて脱出する。他の昆虫のように翅伸展に手間取ったりせず（脱出前に体が固まっている？）直ちに繭を離れるようだ。繭は宿主体表に約50個あったが羽化のピークは既に過ぎていた模様。その後20時過ぎまで粘っても殆ど変化なかったので割愛。うかつでした。 Magnified version of the previously uploaded time-lapse video (9:10-16:35). [Host] hairy caterpillar of japanese moth (Dendrolimus sperans). Dead for a week clinging a pine needle. Lateral view, head to the left on the 1mm grid paper. [Parasite] Eight days after cocooning, adult parasitic wasps emerged one by one from white cocoons on the host. Blue arrows indicate the opening cocoons. Music : Heiki vs. Teknostep - Clean Water Video Diary part 1: http://youtube.com/watch?v=wykoSNqqv_o part 2: http://youtube.com/watch?v=mii_nmWYGAs part 3: http://youtube.com/watch?v=dG4L4DCb_wk part 4: http://youtube.com/watch?v=oDNSkD-1Pb8 *part 5: http://youtube.com/watch?v=Cb_Cfod1P_k part 6: http://youtube.com/watch?v=nJQ7LI1Firo