'Zimbabwe' (
IPA: ), officially the 'Republic of Zimbabwe', and formerly the '
Republic of Rhodesia' and '
Zimbabwe Rhodesia', is a
landlocked country in the southern part of the
continent of
Africa, between the
Zambezi and
Limpopo rivers. It borders
South Africa to the south,
Botswana to the southwest,
Zambia to the northwest, and
Mozambique to the east. The name ''Zimbabwe'' derives from "Zimba Remabwe" meaning "big house of stone" in the
Shona language.
[1] Its use as the country's name is a tribute to
Great Zimbabwe, site of the capital of the
Empire of Great Zimbabwe.
Under the leadership of current president
Robert Mugabe the
economy of Zimbabwe declined from one of the strongest in Africa to the weakest.
History
Precolonial era
There is wide-spread evidence of the presence of
Stone Age hunters in Zimbabwe from about 5000 years ago or even earlier. These people were related to today's
Khoisan people and were displaced by Bantu people. They painted scenes of life in hundreds of caves across Zimbabwe, the so-called ''Bushman paintings''.
[2] Iron Age Bantu-speaking peoples began migrating into the area about 2,000 years ago, including the ancestors of the
Shona, who account for roughly four-fifths of the country's population today. By the Middle Ages, there was a Bantu civilization in the region, as evidenced by ruins at
Great Zimbabwe, a Shona-speaking state. Around the early
10th century, trade developed with
Muslim merchants on the
Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop Great Zimbabwe in the
11th century. The state traded
gold,
ivory, and
copper for
cloth and
glass. It ceased to be the leading Shona state in the mid-
15th century.In 1836 the Shona were conquered in southern Zimbabwe by the
Ndebele, who forced them to pay tribute and concentrate in northern Zimbabwe.
[3]
Colonization
In 1888 British
entrepreneur Cecil Rhodes extracted mining rights from
King Lobengula of the Ndebele.
[4] He used this concession to persuade the British government to grant a royal charter to his
British South Africa Company (BSAC) over
Matabeleland and its subject states such as
Mashonaland, and to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the
Limpopo River and
Lake Tanganyika, referred to as 'Zambesia'. Through such concessions and treaties, many of which were deceitful,
[5] he promoted the colonization of the region's land, labor, and precious metal and mineral resources.
[6] In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name '
Rhodesia' for Zambesia, after Cecil Rhodes, and in
1898 '
Southern Rhodesia' was officially adopted for the part south of the Zambezi,
[7] which later became Zimbabwe, while the part to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and was later named
Northern Rhodesia, now
Zambia.
Natives
staged unsuccessful revolts against the encroachment on their lands in 1896 and 1897.
[8] Both the Ndebele and Shona became subject to the Rhodes administration. This was the beginning of a larger settlement of white settlers that led to land distribution favouring whites, displacing both the Shona and Ndebele and other black people. The land issue in Zimbabwe remains a controversial issue to this day.
Southern Rhodesia became a
self-governing British colony in 1922. In 1953, in the face of African opposition,
[9] Britain joined the two parts of Rhodesia with
Nyasaland (now
Malawi) in the ill-fated
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland which was dominated by Southern Rhodesian settlers. Growing
African nationalism and unrest particularly in Nyasaland forced Britain to dissolve it in 1963, and each of the three countries went their separate ways. On
November 11,
1965,
Ian Smith unilaterally declared independence from Britain
[10] and Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation 'Southern', becoming the
Republic of Rhodesia in
1970.
[11]
Settler rule and civil war
The British government requested
United Nations economic sanctions against
Rhodesia as negotiations with the Smith administration in 1966 and 1968 ended in stalemate. The Smith administration declared itself a
republic in 1970, recognized only by the
apartheid government of
South Africa.
[12][13]
Guerrilla fighting against the government intensified, and the Smith government opened negotiations with the leaders of the Patriotic Fronts
Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by
Robert Mugabe, and the
Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), led by
Joshua Nkomo.
In March 1978, with his regime near the brink of collapse, Smith signed an accord with three black leaders, led by Bishop
Abel Muzorewa, who offered safeguards for white civilians. As the result of an
Internal Settlement elections were held in April 1979. The
United African National Council (UANC) party won a majority in this election. On
June 1 1979, UANC's leader,
Abel Muzorewa, became the country's prime minister. The country's name was changed to
Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The internal settlement left control of the country's police, security forces, civil service, and judiciary in white hands. It assured whites of about one third of the seats in parliament. It was essentially a power-sharing arrangement which did not amount to majority rule.
[14] However, on
June 12, the
United States Senate voted to end economic sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia.
On
December 1,
1979 delegations from the British and Rhodesian governments and the Patriotic Front met in
London and signed the
Lancaster House Agreement, ending the
civil war.
[15]
Independence
Britain's
Lord Soames was appointed governor to oversee the disarming of revolutionary guerrillas, the holding of elections, and the granting of independence to an uneasy coalition government with Joshua Nkomo, head of ZAPU. In the free elections of February 1980, Mugabe and his ZANU won a landslide victory. Mugabe has won re-election ever since.
During the first decade of independence Mugabe used the
North Korean trained
Fifth Brigade to silence any opposition from the
Ndebele nation in an operation against dissidents referred to as
Gukurahundi. Several thousand civilians, mostly Ndebele, were killed or disappeared
[16] and have not been accounted for to this date. Allegations of
genocide and
ethnic cleansing have resulted in calls for Mugabe's arrest and prosecution for crimes against humanity.
[17]
Land issues, which the liberation movement promised to solve, re-emerged as the vital issue for the
ruling party beginning in 1999. Despite majority rule, and the existence of a "willing buyer-willing seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, ZANU (PF) claimed that
whites made up less than 1% of the population but held 70% of the country's commercially viable
arable land (though these figures are disputed by many outside the
Government of Zimbabwe). Mugabe began to
redistribute land to blacks in 2000 with a compulsory land redistribution; charges that the programme as a whole is designed to reward loyal deputies have persisted in Zimbabwe since the beginning of the process. Despite claims by both the opposition and the government that land reform of one kind or another must take place, the Mugabe led process has been seen as a diversion away from an ill conceived war in the
DRC and economic maladministration. The legality and constitutionality of the process has regularly been challenged in the Zimbabwean High and Supreme Courts, however the
policing agencies have rarely acted in accordance with courts' rulings on these matters. The chaotic implementation of the land reform led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, traditionally the country's leading export producing sector.
Mining and
tourism have surpassed
agriculture. As a result, Zimbabwe is currently experiencing a severe hard currency shortage, which has led to
hyperinflation and chronic shortages in imported
fuel and consumer goods. In 2002 Zimbabwe was suspended from the
Commonwealth of Nations on charges of
human rights abuses during the land redistribution and of
election tampering.
[18]
Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "
Operation Murambatsvina," a supposed effort to crack down on illegal markets and homes that had seen slums unfit for human habitation emerge in towns and cities. This action has been widely condemned by opposition and international figures, who charge that it has left a large section of the urban poor homeless. The Zimbabwe government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population although they have yet to deliver any new housing for the forcefully removed people.
[19]
Zimbabwe's current economic and food crisis, described by some observers as the country's worst humanitarian crisis since independence, has been attributed, in varying degrees, to a drought affecting the entire region, the
HIV/
AIDS epidemic, and the government's price controls and land reforms.
[20]
Life expectancy at birth for males in Zimbabwe has dramatically declined since 1990 from 60 to 37, the lowest in the world. Life expectancy for females is even lower at 34 years.
[21] Concurrently, the infant mortality rate has climbed from 53 to 81 deaths per 1,000 live births in the same period. 5.5 million Zimbabweans currently live with the HIV.
[22]
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has a
parliamentary government. Under constitutional changes in 2005, an
upper chamber, the
Senate, was reinstated.
[23] The
House of Assembly is the
lower chamber of Parliament.
President Robert Mugabe's
Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front has been the dominant political party in Zimbabwe since independence.
[24] In 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the
constitution and made himself president. His ZANU party has won every election since independence, with outside observers routinely alleging
corruption and
rigging. In particular, the elections of 1990 were nationally and internationally condemned as being rigged, with the second-placed party,
Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement, winning only 20% of the vote. Presidential elections were last held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud.
[25] The next Presidential elections are to be held in 2008, although Mugabe is currently trying to amend the constitution in an attempt to stay in power until 2010.
[26]
The
Movement for Democratic Change led by
Morgan Tsvangirai is the largest opposition party. The MDC is currently split into two factions. One faction, led by
Mekhi is contesting the elections to the Senate, while the other led by Morgan Tsvangirai is opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mekhi's claim that past elections were free and fair. However, the opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as
2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2005 with Morgan Tsvangirai being elected to lead the main splinter group which has become more popular than the other group. Mutambara, a Robotics Professor and former
NASA robotics specialist has replaced
Welshman Ncube who was the interim leader after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won some seats in the senate. The Mutambara faction has however been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto.
As of 2007, the Tsvangirai-led MDC has become the most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500–5,000 for the other splinter group. There is wide disagreement in Zimbabwe and neighbouring states as to whether a divided MDC can win presidential elections against a disciplined ruling party. The opposition continues to be weak in rural areas, where a large number of the population of Zimbabwe resides.
The
2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on
March 31 and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and
Jonathan Moyo, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.
[27] Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.
Education
Zimbabwe has an adult literacy rate of approximately 90%.
[28][29][30] Zimbabweans generally value and pursue
academic achievement. President Mugabe has seven non-honorary degrees and the
cabinet has several graduates at
PhD level.
[31]
Universities
★
University of Zimbabwe, the first, largest and most complete- situated in the city of
Harare
★
National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe (NUST), the second state university
★
Africa University, in Mutare
★
Midlands State University
★
Bindura University of Science Education
★
Chinhoyi University of Technology
★
Masvingo State University
★
Catholic University in Zimbabwe
★
Zimbabwe Open University
★
Women's University in Africa
★
Solusi University
★
Lupane State University
★
University Without Walls
★
Theological College of Zimbabwe
★
Harare Institute of Technology
Professional bodies
The highest professional board for
accountants is the
Institute of Chartered Accountants in Zimbabwe (ICAZ) with direct relationships with similar bodies in
South Africa,
Canada,
UK and
Australia, meaning if you are a qualified
Chartered Accountant from Zimbabwe, you are also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper which is normally easier than the normal qualifying examination papers. In addition, Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully-licensed doctors in the United States.
The
Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers (ZIE) is the highest professional board for
engineers.
Media
The current Zimbabwean government suppresses freedom of the press and has repeatedly been accused of using the public broadcaster (ZBC) as a
propaganda tool.
[32] Newspapers critical of the government, such as the ''Daily News'', closed after bombs exploded at their offices
[33] and the government refused to renew their license.
[34]
BBC News and
CNN have also been banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe.
[35]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Zimbabwe,
Districts of Zimbabwe,
Municipalities of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is divided into eight
provinces and two cities with provincial status. The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1,200 municipalities.
The provinces include:
★
Bulawayo (city)
★
Harare (city)
★
Manicaland
★
Mashonaland Central
★
Mashonaland East
★
Mashonaland West
★
Masvingo
★
Matabeleland North
★
Matabeleland South
★
Midlands
Districts: see
Districts of Zimbabwe
Municipalities: see
Municipalities of Zimbabwe
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Zimbabwe
Bridal Veil Falls, Eastern Highlands
Zimbabwe is a
landlocked country, surrounded by
South Africa to the south,
Botswana to the west,
Zambia to the northwest and
Mozambique to the east and northeast.
Mount Nyangani is the highest mountain in Zimbabwe at 2,592 m (8,504 ft). The north-western border is defined by the
Zambezi River.
Victoria Falls is a popular tourist destination on the Zambezi. To the south, Zimbabwe is separated from
South Africa by the
Limpopo River. Zimbabwe also meets
Namibia to the west at a single point.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Zimbabwe
The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems after having abandoned earlier efforts to develop a market-oriented economy. Current problems include a shortage of
foreign exchange, soaring inflation, and supply shortages. Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.
[36]
Mineral exports, agriculture, and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa south of the equator. Since land redistribution began, agricultural exports, especially tobacco, have declined sharply. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife has died since 2000. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation may negatively impact the tourist industry.
[37]
The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption of the Mugabe regime and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land redistribution of 2000.
[38]
Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to an official estimated high of 7,634.8% in August 2007,
[39] a state of
hyperinflation.
The IMF predicted inflation will reach 6,430% by the end of 2008. Estimates from private sector economists estimate inflation at about four times the official figures.
On
June 21,
2007 the U.S. ambassador to Zimbabwe, Christopher Dell, told ''
The Guardian'' newspaper that inflation could reach 1.5 million per cent (1,500,000%) by the end of the year. The current unofficial inflation rate is above 11,000% and the black-market exchange rate is Z$400,000 to the
pound.
[40]
On
July 13, 2007 the Zimbabwe government said it had temporarily stopped publishing (official) inflation figures, a move that observers said was meant to draw attention away from runaway inflation which has come to symbolize the country's unprecedented economic meltdown.
[41]
In August 2006 a new revalued Zimbabwean dollar was introduced, equal to 1000 old Zimbabwean dollars. The exchange rate fell from 24 old
Zimbabwean dollars per
U.S. dollar (USD) in 1998 to 250,000 old or 250 new Zimbabwean dollars per USD at the official rate,
[42] and an estimated 120,000,000 old or 120,000 revalued Zimbabwean dollars per US dollar on the parallel market
[43], in
June 2007.
Mugabe points to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of this, as well as the country's 80%
[44] formal unemployment rate. Critics of Mugabe's administration, including the majority of the international community, blame Mugabe's controversial program which sought to seize land from white commercial farmers. Mugabe has repeatedly blamed sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe by the European Union and the United States for the state of the Zimbabwean economy. These sanctions only target government officials and not ordinary citizens.
[45]. In a recent meeting of the
Southern African Development Community, a call was issued for the sanctions to be removed.
[46]
Demographics and ethnicity
Main articles: Demographics of Zimbabwe
According to the
United Nations World Health Organization, the life expectancy for men is 37 years and the life expectancy for women is 34 years of age, the lowest in the world in 2006.
[47] An association of doctors in Zimbabwe have made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service.
[48]
Zimbabwe has a very high
HIV infection rate. In 2001, it was measured at its highest level ever of 33.7% for people aged 15–49.
On
3 October 2006 Zimbabwe launched the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit, which forms the basis for a global
AIDS prevention, treatment and support plan. The country was chosen to test it because of its excellence in initiating different strategies on home based care.
[49]
Refugee crisis
The economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe has led to a flood of refugees into neighboring countries. An estimated 3,4 million Zimbabweans -a quarter of the population- had fled abroad by mid 2007.
[50] Some 3 million of these have gone to South Africa.
[51]
Apart from the people who fled into the neighboring countries, an estimated 570,000 people are displaced within the borders of the country, many of whom remain in transit camps and have limited access to assistance. Most of the displaced have been victims of the Operation Murambatsvina in the year 2005 and continuing evictions and violent farm seizures. Their plight is virtually impossible to assess, as there has been no national survey of people displaced since 2005..
[52]
Language
English is the official
language of Zimbabwe, though less than 2.5%, mainly the white and
Coloured (mixed race) minorities, consider it their native language. The rest of the population speak
Shona (76%) and
Ndebele (18%).
[53] Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, ''Feso'' by
Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1956.
[54] English is spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news is now broadcast in English, Ndebele, and Shona.
Ethnic groups (2005 est.)
Black ethnic groups total 98% of the population:
★
Shona 80–84%. The ruling party is linked to the Shona majority ethnic group and a small Ndebele group from Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU, although there is also considerable opposition support among the Shona.
★
Ndebele 8–10%. The Ndebele are descended from
Zulu migrations in the nineteenth century and the other tribes with which they mixed. Support for the opposition is particularly strong both from the Ndebele and the Shona majority. Up to 1 million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years, mainly for South Africa.
★
Bantus of other ethnicity 8–10%.
Other Zimbabwean ethnic groups:
★
White Zimbabweans 1.5%. These are mostly of British origin, but some are of
Afrikaner,
Portuguese and
Dutch origin as well. The white population dropped from a peak of 275,000 in
1970 to possibly 120,000 in 1999, and was estimated at no more than 60,000 in 2006, possibly much less. Most emigration has been to the UK, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia,
Australia and
New Zealand.
★
Mixed race 0.5%.
★ Asian ethnic groups (various) 0.5%. Mostly of
Indian and
Chinese origin. Asian immigrants are influential in the economic sector. If the current trend continues, they will surpass whites as the largest non-African minority group in Zimbabwe.
Human rights
There have been widespread reports of various civil and political human rights abuses throughout Zimbabwe, in particular against opponents of the government. According to
human rights organizations such as
Amnesty International and
Human Rights Watch the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food,
freedom of movement and residence,
freedom of assembly and the
protection of the law. There are assaults on the
media, the
political opposition,
civil society activists, and
human rights defenders.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Zimbabwe
Football is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe, although
rugby and
cricket also have a following, traditionally among the white minority.
Zimbabwe celebrates its
national holiday on
April 18.
Arts
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include
pottery, basketry,
textiles,
jewelry, and
carving. Among the distinctive qualities are
symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona
sculpture in essence has been a fusion of African folklore with
European influences. Also, a recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the
metamorphosis of man into beast.
Zimbabwean musicians like
Thomas Mapfumo,
Oliver Mutukudzi and the
Bhundu Boys have achieved international recognition.
Religion
There are various forms of spiritual practice in Zimbabwe. Forty to fifty percent of Zimbabweans attend
Christian churches. Around ten percent are
Roman Catholics, who have an
Archbishop of Harare. However like most former European
colonies, Christianity is often mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Besides Christianity,
ancestral worship is the most practiced non-Christian
religion which involves ancestor worship and
spiritual intercession; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu, which means "Voice of the Ancestors", an instrument related to many
lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means God the creator, musika vanhu. Around 1% of the population is
Muslim.
Food
As many other Africans, a majority of Zimbabweans depend on staple foods. "Mealie meal" (
cornmeal) is used to prepare ''bota'', a
porridge made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste. This is usually flavoured with
peanut butter,
milk,
butter, or, sometimes,
jam.
Bota is usually eaten for breakfast. Cornmeal is also used to make ''
sadza'', which is usually eaten for dinner, and by many for lunch too. Sadza is prepared similarly to bota; however, after the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste until it is hard. This meal is usually served with greens, (
spinach,
collard greens), etc., beans, and meat that is stewed, grilled, or roasted. Sadza is also commonly eaten with
curdled milk, commonly known as lacto (mukaka wakakora), or a small dried fish called kapenta (matemba). On special occasions, rice and
chicken with cabbage salad are often served as the main meal.
Graduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a
goat or
cow, which will be
braaied (an
Afrikaaner form of
barbecue) for the family.
Afrikaners' recipes are popular though they are a small group within the white minority group. Meat is especially important, though often expensive and now rare in Zimbabwe, for Afrikaners.
Biltong, a type of
jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.
Boerewors (
pronounced - "Boo-ruh-vorse") is served alongside sadza. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of various meats and barbecued.
See also
★
List of Zimbabweans
★
Land reform in Zimbabwe
★
Communications in Zimbabwe
★
Politics of Zimbabwe
★
Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
★
Gay rights in Zimbabwe
★
Elias Fund, nonprofit organisation created to help children in Zimbabwe
★
List of cities and towns in Zimbabwe
★
Military of Zimbabwe and
Military history of Zimbabwe
★
Place names in Zimbabwe
★
Transportation in Zimbabwe
★
The Boy Scouts Association of Zimbabwe
★
The legend of Nyaminyami
★
Robert Mugabe
References
1. Zimbabwe, History Department of UKZN.
2. Chippindale, Christopher. ''Pictures in Place: Looking at Pictures in Place''. Page 15.
3. So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really? Africa Stage
4. Hensman, Howard. ''Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career''. Page 106-107.
5. Parsons, Neil. ''A New History of Southern Africa, Second Edition'', 1993. London: Macmillan. Pages 178-181.
6. Bryce, James. ''Impressions of South Africa''. Page 170.
7. Gray, J. A. (1956). "A Country in Search of a Name." ''The Northern Rhodesia Journal'' 'III' (1) (1956). Page 78.
8. Palamarek, Ernie. ''Hatari''. Page 132.
9. Parsons (1993). Page 292.
10. Judd, Denis. ''Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present'. Page 372.
11. Parsons (1993). Pages 318–320.
12. Malawi political background
13. Zambia political background NationsEncyclopedia.com, 2003
14. 1 June 1979 BBC News
15. Preston, Matthew. ''Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective.'' Page 25
16. "Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace. A report on the disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands 1980 – 1989"
17. Genocide victims want Mugabe punished, Global Policy Forum, 6 January 2002
18. Zimbabwe suspended indefinitely from Commonwealth, HumanRightsFirst.org, 8 December 2003
19. Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies, Amnesty International, 9 August 2006
20. Crisis profile: Zimbabwe's humanitarian situation, July 26, 2005. AlertNet.
21. "Zimbabwe Life Expectancy Lowest In The World", ''Public Health News'', 10 April, 2006
22. Guardian article, The wasteland - inside Mugabe's crumbling state, March 17, 2007 ''The Guardian''
23. Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 17) Act, 2005 NGO Network Alliance Project
24. Mugabe, Robert. (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. ''Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite.'' Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
25. Zimbabwe: Election Fraud Report, University of Pennsylvania, 18 April 2005
26. Mugabe could stay on until 2010, South African ''Mail and Guardian'', 21 January 2007
27. Mugabe's former ally accuses him of foul play, March 12, 2005. ''Independent Online Zimbabwe''.
28. Zimbabwe, CIA World Factbook
29. Botswana Literacy Survey 2003, Central Statistics Office, Botswana
30. {{PDFlink|1=Zimbabwe Country Assistance Evaluation World Bank.
31. Zimbabwe's despotic leader ''The Economist''.
32. ZIMBABWE Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers ''Press Reference'', 2006
33. Zimbabwe newspaper bombed ''BBC News'', 28 January 2001
34. Zimbabwe: Newspaper Silenced, February 7, 2004. ''New York Times''.
35. Why did Zimbabwe ban the BBC?, April 1, 2005. ''BBC News''.
36. Organised Violence and Torture in Zimbabwe in 1999, 1999. ''Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum''.
37. Zimbabwe's Wildlife Decimated by Economic Crisis
38. Brazilian economist urges Zimbabweans to pressure Mugabe, October 17, 2006. ''Zim Observer News''.
39. [1] Reuters.
40. US predicts regime change in Zimbabwe as hyperinflation destroys the economy ''The Guardian'' ''The Guardian''.
41. [2] ''The Zimbabwe Situation''.
42. RBZ
43. Zimbabwe Situation
44. How to stay alive when it all runs out, July 12, 2007. ''The Economist''.
45. [3], ''U.S. Department of State'', 2004
46. [4], ''The Jerusalem Post'', 1 April 2007
47. The World Health Report 2006, The World Health Organization, , , , ,
48. In Zimbabwe, life ends before 40
49. Zimbabwe launches world's first AIDS training package
50. Refugees flood from Zimbabwe ''The Observer''
51. Zimbabwean refugees suffer in Botswana and South Africa ''Sokwanele Civic Action Group''
52. Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Internal displacement in Zimbabwe''
53. Zimbabwe GAP Adventures
54. Mother Tongue: Interviews with Musaemura B. Zimunya and Solomon Mutswairo University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
External links
Government
★
Parliament of Zimbabwe — official government site
★
Zimbabwe Government Online — official government site and
mirror site
News
★
Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story, ''
BBC News Online''
★
AllAfrica.com: Zimbabwe — news headline links
★
IFEX: Zimbabwe — press freedom violations
★
''IRIN News'' — humanitarian news and analysis from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
Directories
★
Columbia University Libraries — ''Zimbabwe'' directory category of the WWW-VL
★
Open Directory Project: Zimbabwe
★
Yahoo!: Zimbabwe
Tourism
★
★
Travel Overview of Zimbabwe
★
Facts about Zimbabwe
Other
★
[5] - Leading online newspaper, with forums
★
Amnesty International annual report 2007 on Zimbabwe
★
Zimbabweb — Zimbabwe Information Portal
★
zwnews — news portal for Zimbabwe
★ — in-depth article on Zimbabwe's collapse
★
Center for Global Development — costs and causes of Zimbabwe's crisis
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