WIND

'Wind' is the flow of air. More generally, it is the flow of the gases which compose an atmosphere; since wind is not only an Earth based phenomenon.^[1]
Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the geographic regions in which they occur, or their effect.
There are global winds, such as the wind belts which exist between the atmospheric circulation cells. There are upper-level winds which typically include narrow belts of concentrated flow called jet streams. There are synoptic-scale winds that result from pressure differences in surface air masses in the middle latitudes, and there are winds that come about as a consequence of geographic features, such as the sea breezes. Mesoscale winds are those which act on a local scale, such as gust fronts. At the smallest scale are the microscale winds, which blow on a scale of only tens to hundreds of meters and are essentially unpredictable, such as dust devils and microbursts.
Forces which drive wind or affect it are the pressure gradient force, the Coriolis force, buoyancy forces, and friction forces. When a difference in pressure exists between two adjacent air masses, the air tends to flow from the region of high pressure to the region of low pressure. On a rotating planet, flows will be acted upon by the Coriolis force, in regions sufficiently far from the equator and sufficiently high above the surface.
The two major driving factors of large scale global winds are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy between these climate zones), and the rotation of the planet.
Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of eolian processes.

Contents

Winds by scale

Mesoscale winds

Microscale winds

Winds by effect

Local winds that are tied to specific temperature distributions

Winds that are defined by an equilibrium of physical forces

Names for specific winds in certain regions

Meteorological instruments to measure wind speed and/or direction

See also

References

External links

Winds by scale

Mesoscale winds

Synoptic winds occupy the higher boundary of what is considered to be "forecastable" wind. Winds at the next lowest level of magnitude typically arise and fade over time periods too short and over geographic regions too narrow to predict with any long-range accuracy. These 'mesoscale winds' include such phenomena as the cold wind outflow from thunderstorms. This wind frequently advances ahead of more intense thunderstorms and may be sufficiently energetic to generate local weather of its own. Many of the "special" winds, addressed in the last section of this article, are mesoscale winds.

Microscale winds

Microscale winds take place over very short durations of time - seconds to minutes - and spatially over only tens to hundreds of metres. The turbulence following the passage of an active front is composed of microscale winds, and it is microscale wind which produces convective events such as dust devils. Though small in scope, microscale winds can play a major role in human affairs. It was the crash of a fully loaded Lockheed L-1011 at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport in the summer of 1985, and the subsequent loss of 133 lives, that introduced the term "microburst" to many people, and that was a factor in the installation of Doppler radar in airports and weather installations worldwide.

Winds by effect

In classical terminology, ''Aeolian winds'', or winds producing ''Aeolian action'', are winds which produce geologic changes. Modern tornadoes and hurricanes might at times be considered to produce such changes.
Largescale erosion, dune formation, and other geologic and topographic effects influenced by wind are still referred to as 'aeolian activity'.

Local winds that are tied to specific temperature distributions

Some local winds blow only under certain circumstances, i.e. they require a certain temperature distribution.
''Differential heating'' is the motive force behind 'land breezes' and 'sea breezes' (or, in the case of larger lakes, lake breezes), also known as on- or off-shore winds. Land absorbs and radiates heat faster than water, but water releases heat over a longer period of time. The result is that, in locations where sea and land meet, heat absorbed over the day will be radiated more quickly by the land at night, cooling the air. Over the sea, heat is still being released into the air at night, which rises. This convective motion draws the cool land air in to replace the rising air, resulting in a land breeze in the late night and early morning. During the day, the roles are reversed. Warm air over the land rises, pulling cool air in from the sea to replace it, giving a sea breeze during the afternoon and evening.
'Mountain breezes' and 'valley breezes' are due to a combination of differential heating and geometry. When the sun rises, it is the tops of the mountain peaks which receive first light, and as the day progresses, the mountain slopes take on a greater heat load than the valleys. This results in a temperature inequity between the two, and as warm air rises off the slopes, cool air moves up out of the valleys to replace it. This upslope wind is called a ''valley breeze''. The opposite effect takes place in the afternoon, as the valley radiates heat. The peaks, long since
cooled,
transport air into the valley in a process that is partly gravitational and partly convective and is called a ''mountain breeze''.
Mountain breezes are one example of what is known more generally as a katabatic wind. These are winds driven by cold air flowing down a slope, and occur on the largest scale in Greenland and Antarctica. Most often, this term refers to winds which form when air which has cooled over a high, cold plateau is set in motion and descends under the influence of gravity. Winds of this type are common in regions of Mongolia and in glaciated locations.
Because ''katabatic'' refers specifically to the vertical motion of the wind, this group also includes winds which form on the lee side of mountains, and heat as a consequence of compression. Such winds may undergo a temperature increase of 20 °C (36 °F) or more, and many of the world's "named" winds (see list below) belong to this group. Among the most well-known of these winds are the chinook of Western Canada and the American Northwest, the Swiss föhn, California's infamous Santa Ana wind, and the French Mistral.
The opposite of a katabatic wind is an anabatic wind, or an upward-moving wind. The above-described ''valley breeze'' is an anabatic wind.
A widely-used term, though one not formally recognised by meteorologists, is ''orographic wind''. This refers to air which undergoes orographic lifting. Most often, this is in the context of winds such as the chinook or the föhn, which undergo lifting by mountain ranges before descending and warming on the lee side.

Winds that are defined by an equilibrium of physical forces

These winds are used in the decomposition and analysis of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of winds. Examples are:

★ Geostrophic wind (wind that is a result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force; flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow above the atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes if frictional effects are low)

★ Thermal wind (not actually a wind but a wind ''difference'' between two levels; only exists in an atmosphere with horizontal temperature gradients, i.e. baroclinicity)

★ Ageostropic wind (difference between actual and geostrophic wind; the wind component which is responsible for air "filling up" cyclones over time)

★ Gradient wind (like geostrophic wind but also including centrifugal force)

Names for specific winds in certain regions

In ancient Greek mythology, the four winds were personified as gods, called the Anemoi. These included ''Boreas'', ''Notos'', ''Euros'', and ''Zephyros''. The Ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of the winds, as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens.
In modern usage, many local wind systems have their own names. For example:

★ ''Abroholos'' (squall frequent wind that occurs from May through August between Cabo de Sao Tome and Cabo Frio on the coast of Brazil)

★ '' Alize'' (northeasterly across central Africa and the Caribbean)

★ ''Alizé Maritime'' (a wet, fresh northerly wind across west central Africa)

★ ''Amihan'' (northeasterly wind across the Philippines)

★ ''Bayamo'' (a violent wind on Cuba's southern coast)

★ ''Bora'' (northeasterly from eastern Europe to northeastern Italy)

★ ''Chinook'' (warm dry westerly off the Rocky Mountains)

★ ''Etesian'' (Greek name) or ''Meltem'' (Turkish name) (northerly across Greece and Turkey)

★ '' ''Fénfēng'' "burning wind" after having typhoon moisture removed passing over the mountains in Taiwan

★ ''Föhn'' (warm dry southerly off the northern side of the Alps and the North Italy)

★ ''Fremantle Doctor'' (afternoon sea breeze from the Indian Ocean which cools Perth, Western Australia during summer)

★ ''Gilavar'' (south wind in the Absheron Peninsula of the Azerbaijan Republic)

★ ''Gregale'' (northeasterly from Greece)

★ ''Habagat'' (southwesterly wind across the Philippines)

★ ''Harmattan'' (dry northerly wind across central Africa)

★ ''Halny'' (in northern Carpathians)

★ ''Khamsin'' (southeasterly from north Africa to the eastern Mediterranean)

★ ''Khazri'' (cold north wind in the Absheron Peninsula of the Azerbaijan Republic)

★ ''Kona'' (southeast wind in Hawaii, replacing trade winds, bringing high humidity and often rain)

★ ''Košava'' (strong and cold southeasterly season wind in Serbia)

★ ''Levanter'' (easterly through Strait of Gibraltar)

★ ''Libeccio'' (southwesterly towards Italy)

★ ''Marin'' (south-easterly from Mediterranean to France)

★ ''Minuano'' (southern Brazil)

★ ''Mistral'' (cold northerly from central France and the Alps to Mediterranean)

★ ''Nor'easter'' (a strong storm with winds from the northeast in the eastern United States, especially New England)

★ ''Nor'wester'' (A wind that brings rain to the West Coast, and warm dry winds to the East Coast of New Zealand)

★ ''Pampero'', (Argentina), (very strong blows in the Pampa)

★ ''Papagayo'', a periodic wind which blows across Nicaragua and Costa Rica and out over the Gulf of Papagayo

★ ''Passat'', (Tropic),a medium strong, constant blowing Wind in tropical Sea-Areas

★ ''Santa Ana winds'' (southern California)

★ ''Simoom'' (strong, dry, desert wind that blows in the Sahara, Israel, Jordan, Syria, and the desert of Arabia)

★ ''Sirocco'' (southerly from north Africa to southern Europe)

★ ''Solano'' This is another name for the Levanter

★ ''Southerly Buster'' (rapidly arriving low pressure cell that dramatically cools Sydney, Australia during summer)

★ ''Tehuano'' a periodic wind which blows across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico and out over the Gulf of Tehuantepec

★ ''Tramontane'' (cold northwesterly from the Pyrenees or northeasterly from the Alps to the Mediterranean, similar to Mistral)

★ ''Vendavel'' (westerly through Strait of Gibraltar)

★ ''Zonda wind'' (on the eastern slope of the Andes in Argentina)

Meteorological instruments to measure wind speed and/or direction

Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates. For example, a ''northerly'' wind blows from the north to the south.
Local sensing techniques

★ Anemometer (measures wind speed, either directly, e.g. with rotating cups, or indirectly, e.g. via pressure differences or the propagation speed of ultrasound signals)

★ Rawinsonde (GPS-based wind measurement is performed by the probe)

★ Weather balloon (passive measurement, balloon position is tracked from the ground visually or via radar; wind profile is computed from drift rate and the theoretical speed of ascent)

★ Weather vane (used to indicate wind direction)

★ Windsock (primarily used to indicate wind direction, may also be used to estimate wind speed by its angle)

★ Pitot tubes
Remote sensing techniques:

★ SODAR

★ Doppler LIDARs can measure the Doppler shift of light reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules. This measurement can be directly related to wind velocity.

★ Radiometers and Radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes. This measurement can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans.

See also

★ Beaufort scale

★ Biological dispersal

★ Climatology

★ Wind power

★ High Wind Warning

★ High Wind Watch

★ Wind Advisory

★ Atmospheric circulation

References

1. Jupiter's Hurricane-Force Winds Increase In Depths of the Planet's Atmosphere

External links

★ Dancing with the Devils - A short movie showing dust devils in action on a dry lakebed

★ Database of Wind Characteristics - Wind data for wind (turbine) design and wind resource assessment and siting

★ Meteorology Guides: Forces and Winds - Instructional module from the University of Illinois

★ Names of Winds - A list from Golden Gate Weather Services

★ Wind Atlases of the World - Lists of wind atlases and wind surveys from all over the world

★ Winds of Mars: Aeolian Activity and Landforms - Paper with slides that illustrate the wind activity on the planet Mars

★ Classification of Wind Speeds