(Redirected from War horse)
'Horses' have been used in human 'warfare' for millennia, probably since the time of
domestication of the horse.
Horses were specially trained for a variety of military uses, including
battle, individual
combat,
reconnaissance (scouting), transport, and supply. Technically, the term 'war horse' usually refers in general to horses used for fighting, whether as
cavalry in battle or in individual combat. The best-known war horse was the
destrier, ridden by the
knight of the
Middle Ages. However, even horses used for purposes other than direct combat played a critically important part of successful military ventures. There are still some uses for horses in the military even in today's modern world.
Types of horses used in warfare
A fundamental principle of
horse conformation is "form to function." Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the task at hand. There was a trade-off between speed and protection. Adding weight reduces maximum speed, as is seen today when
handicapping modern
race horses. Conversely, a warrior or soldier also required some degree of protection from enemy weapons, and an overemphasis on light equipment could easily prove fatal in some situations. In close combat, protection, even though it added weight, was considered to matter more than speed.
Horses used in war also varied in size, depending on the type of work, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and the distances traveled. The average horse can carry up to approximately 25% of its body weight.
[1][2] Weight carried affected both speed and endurance. In some cultures, warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater speed and endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, when wearing heavy armor in actual combat.
Horses used for pulling vehicles varied in size, but also traded off speed for weight and power. A team of two light horses could pull a small war chariot that carried only a driver and a warrior.
[3] On the other hand, supply wagons and other support vehicles needed either heavier horses or a larger number of horses to perform the transportation duties required support military operations.
[4] While all horses can pull more than they can carry, the weight horses can pull varies widely, depending on the build of the horse, the type of vehicle, whether a vehicle rolls on wheels or is simply dragged, whether it is pulled on a good road or in rough terrain, and so on.
[5] In practical terms, a modern heavy
draft horse weighing about 2000 lb can pull somewhere between 1.5 tons and 9 tons, depending on conditions
For example, a team of two modern
draft horses can pull 4,000 lb in weight-pull competitions, dragging a unwheeled weighted sled on level dirt for a short distance
[8][9] On the other hand, horses pulling a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull between three to eight times their weight.
[6] The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also influenced how much it could pull: Horses could pull greater weight hitched to a vehicle with a
horse collar than they could with an ox
yoke or a breast collar.
Light-weight horses
Light, "oriental" horses such as the ancestors of the modern
Arabian,
Barb, and
Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance and agility. Such horses ranged from about 13
hands to about 15 hands (52 to 60 in., 1.32 m to 1.51 m), weighing approximately 800 to 1000 pounds (400 to 500 kg). To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight
tack and carry relatively light weapons such as
bows, light spears or
javelins, or, later,
rifles. This was the original horse used for raiding, light
cavalry, scouting or reconnaissance, and communications.
Light horses were used by many cultures, including the
Scythians, the
Parthians, the
Ancient Egyptians, the
Mongols, the
Arabs, and the
American Indians. Throughout the
Ancient Near East, because the first domesticated horses were small, light animals, (see
domestication of the horse) teams of two or more horses were often used to pull
chariots. In the European
Middle Ages, the light type of horse became known as a
Palfrey. Light horses sometimes carried
Dragoons and
Mounted infantry, depending on the amount of weight required to be carried by each soldier.
Medium-weight horses
Japanese warriors fending off invaders of the
Mongol invasions of Japan, painted c. 1293 A.D. By this time, a medium-weight horse was used.
Medium-weight horses developed with the needs of most civilizations to pull heavier loads and to carry heavier riders, beginning as early as the
Iron Age.
Breeds such as the ancestors of the modern
Andalusian,
Lipizzan, and the various
Warmblood breeds got their start by the need for horses to haul chariots capable of holding more than two people, pull supply wagons, and maneuver various types of weapons, such as
horse artillery into place. As
light cavalry evolved into
heavy cavalry, a larger horse was also needed to carry the increased weight of a more heavily-armed and armored rider. Medium-weight horses had the greatest range in size, from about 14.2 hands to as much as 17 hands (58 in to 68 in, 1.47 m to 1.73 m) weighing approximately 1,000 to 1,500 pounds (500 to 750 kg ). They generally were quite agile in combat, though they did not have the raw speed or endurance of a lighter horse. The heavier horses in this class were sometimes called
Destriers and may have resembled the modern
Friesian or
Irish Draught. Horses similar to the modern
warmblood often carried European
Dragoons and
Mounted infantry.
Heavy-weight horses
Large, heavy horses, weighing from 1,500 to nearly 2,000 pounds (750 to nearly 1,000 kg), the ancestors of today's
draft horses, were used, particularly in
Europe from the
Middle Ages onward. They pulled heavy loads, having the muscle power to pull weapons or supply wagons and to remain calm under fire. Some historians believe they may also have carried the heaviest-armored
knights of the European Late
Middle Ages,
[11][12] though this claim is disputed.
[13] Breeds at the smaller end of the heavyweight category may have included the ancestors of the
Percheron, which are agile for their size and would have been physically able to maneuver in battle.
[14] However, there is considerable dispute if the
Destrier class of horse actually included draft types.
[15]
Other Equids
Horses were not the only animals used to support human warfare.
Mules, a hybrid of a horse and a
donkey or ass were also commonly used, especially as pack animals and to pull wagons, though occasionally as riding animals.
[16] Mules, as a general rule, are considered both calmer and hardier than horses and so were useful for strenuous, difficult support tasks, particularly hauling food and supplies over difficult terrain. The size of a mule and work to which it was put depended largely on the breeding of the
mare that produced the mule. Mules, like horses, could be lightweight, medium weight, or even, when produced from draft horse mares, of moderate heavy weight. Donkeys were often used by non-mounted units to carry gear. (see
pack animal)
[17]
Training and deployment of war horses
:''See also
Horse training''
The details on various methods of training horses, and war horses in particular, vary as much as the cultures and historical periods that produced them. Horse training methods were commonly passed on through an
oral tradition and the number of written treatises on the subject was quite limited until the modern era. The oldest manual on training horse for chariot warfare is the work of the
Hittite horsemaster,
Kikkuli, who wrote on the subject circa 1350 B.C.
An ancient manual on the subject of training riding horses, particularly for the
Ancient Greek cavalry is ''Hippike''
On Horsemanship written about 360 B.C. by the Greek cavalry officer
Xenophon, an Athenian who later lived in
Sparta, where he wrote several works.
[18] One of the earliest texts from Asia was that of
Kautilya, written about 323 BC.
Whether horses were trained for pulling
chariots, to be ridden as
light cavalry,
heavy cavalry, or as the
Destrier for the heavily-armoured
knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of
blood, and the confusion of combat. Horses had to learn to face weaponry of the enemy and not panic, even if struck, and learn to accept any sudden or unusual movements of their riders when utilizing a weapon or avoiding one. Developing balance and agility was crucial. The origins of the discipline of
Dressage came from the need to train horses to move with as much athleticism while carrying a rider as they did when free.
In most cultures, a war horse used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins, responding primarily to the rider's legs and weight; to develop tolerance for the noises of battle; to become accustomed to any necessary
tack and protective armour placed upon it, as well as learn to balance under a rider who would also be laden with
weapons and
armor. Horses used for
chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions.
In addition, some war horses were trained for specialized uses. A horse used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike and even bite, thus becoming weapons in the extended
arsenal of the warriors they carried. Other horses, used for raids or reconnaissance, were taught to remain quiet at all times, to avoid whinnying to other horses or otherwise betraying their presence.
The ''Haute ecole'' or "High School" movements of
classical dressage taught to the famous
Lipizzan horses at the
Spanish Riding School in
Vienna have their roots in maneuvers needed on the battlefield. However, it must be pointed out that modern
''airs above the ground'' were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.
Technological innovations in equestrian equipment
Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven. However, evidence is scant, mostly consisting of simple images of human figures on horse-like animals drawn on rock or clay.
[19][20] Bridles of various sorts were invented nearly as soon as the horse was
domesticated, with
bit wear evident on the teeth of horses at the
archaeology sites of Botai and Kozhai 1 in northern
Kazakhstan, dated about 3500-3000 BC.
[21]
Technological advances in harness and vehicles
The invention of the
wheel was a major technological innovation that gave rise to
chariot warfare. Initially, as illustrated by the
Standard of Ur, in ancient
Sumer, c. 2500 BC, horses were hitched to wheeled carts with a
yoke around their necks, in a manner similar to that of
oxen.
However, such a design is incompatible with
horse anatomy, limiting both the strength and mobility of the horse. Therefore, by the time of the
Hyksos invasions of
Egypt, c. 1600 BC, horses were pulling chariots with an improved harness design that made use of a
breast collar and breeching, which allowed a horse to move faster and pull more weight.
Even after the chariot had become obsolete as a tool of war, there still was a need for technological innovations in pulling technologies as larger horses were needed to pull heavier loads of both supplies and weapons. The invention of the
horse collar in
China during the 5th century (
Southern and Northern Dynasties) allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of the ox
yokes or breast collars used in earlier times.
[22] The horse collar arrived in Europe during the 9th century,
and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century.
[23]
Technological advances in riding equipment
Two major innovations that revolutionized the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the
saddle and the
stirrup.
Haniwa horse statuette, complete with saddle and stirrups, 6th century, Kofun period, Japan. Tokyo National Museum
Riders quickly learned to pad their horse's backs to protect themselves from the horse's spine and
withers. Warriors fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse's back and a rudimentary
bridle. To help distribute the rider's weight and protect the horse's back, some cultures created stuffed padding that resembles the panels of today's
English saddle.
Both the
Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a
surcingle or
girth around the horse's
barrel for increased security and comfort. Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts in the fourth century B.C.
The
saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider, but was not widespread until the
2nd century A.D.
However, it made a critical difference, as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. A solid tree, the predecessor of today's
Western saddle, also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle.
[24]
Arguably one of the most important inventions that made cavalry particularly effective was the
stirrup. While a toe loop that held the big toe was used in
India possibly as early as 500 B.C.,
then later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid, the first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about A.D. 322 during the
Jin Dynasty.
[25] By the 7th century, thanks primarily to invaders from Central Asia, such as the
Mongols, stirrups spread across Asia to Europe.
[26] The stirrup, which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, gave nomadic groups such as the
Mongols a decisive military advantage.
Use of stirrups was widespread in Europe by the 8th century.
[27]
History of the horse in warfare
Main articles: cavalry
Greek chariot, circa 490 BCE
The first
archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare was between 4000 and 3000 BC in the
steppes of
Eurasia, in what today is
Ukraine,
Hungary and
Romania. At that location, not long after
domestication of the horse, people began to live together in large fortified towns for protection from horseback-riding raiders.
Horses were used in warfare from the earliest recorded history. One of the first depictions of equids is the "war panel" of the
Standard of Ur, in
Sumer, dated c. 2500 B.C., showing horses (or possibly onagers or mules) pulling a four-wheeled wagon.
[28] While the standard does not show horses in actual combat, simply pulling wagons, these equids clearly had a role to play in the victory depicted.
Chariot Warfare
The earliest documented examples of horses playing a role in combat were in
chariot warfare. Among the first evidence of chariot use are the burials of the
Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture in modern
Russia and
Kazakhstan, dated to approximately 2000 BC.
[29] The oldest evidence of what was probably chariot warfare in the
Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite
Anitta text, of the 18th century BC, which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of
Salatiwara.
[30] The
Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot.
The
Hyksos invaders brought the chariot to
Ancient Egypt in the 16th century B.C. and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward.
The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient world is the
Hittite manual of
Kikkuli, which dates to about 1350 BC, and describes the conditioning of chariot horses.
In the history of
Ancient Greece, chariots are first described in
Homer's
Iliad as vehicles used to transport warriors to battle, but were not used for actual fighting. However, improvements in wheels and axles, combined with the limitations of the long bow used during the
Bronze Age, soon resulted in chariots being driven in battle by almost all Bronze Age societies.
[34]
Chariots were used in China as far back as the
Shang dynasty (ca. 1600-1050 BC). The earliest evidence of chariot warfare in Asia was shown by ceremonial burials. As had occurred earlier in central Asia, horses and chariots were found entombed with their owners so as to be with them in the next life.
[35]
Cavalry and other forms of mounted warfare
Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were archers or spear-throwers mounted on horseback, dating to the reigns of the
Assyrian rulers
Ashurnasirpal II and
Shalmaneser III.
However, these the riders sat far back on their horses, an awkward position for moving quickly, and the horses were usually held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus these archers were more a type of mounted
infantry than true cavalry.
The Assyrians developed
cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the
Cimmerians, who entered
Asia Minor in the 8th Century, B.C. and took over parts of
Urartu during the reign of
Sargon II, approximately 721 B.C.
Mounted warriors such as the
Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century B.C.
[36] By the reign of
Ashurbanipal in 669 B.C., the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic position of riding still seen today and could be said to be true
light cavalry.
The
ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry.
was believed to have been developed by the Ancient
Persians.
By the time of
Darius (558-486 B.C.), Persian military tactics evolved to require horses and riders that were completely armored, and a heavier, more muscled horse developed to carry the additional weight.
Later, The
ancient Greeks developed a heavy armored cavalry, the most famous units being the
companion cavalry of
Alexander the Great.
The Chinese of the 4th century BC during the
Warring States (
403 BC-
221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states,
[37] and in response to nomadic raiders from the north and west, the Chinese of the
Han Dynasty (
202 BC-
220 AD) developed effective mounted units.
The Romans also used heavy cavalry in their armies.
The term
cataphract describes some of the tactics, armour and weaponry of mounted units used from the time of the Persians up until the
Middle Ages.
War horses of the early Islamic world
Muslim warriors conquered North Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. Following the Hegira or
Hijra of
Muhammad in A.D. 622,
Islam spread across the known world of the time. By A.D. 630,
Muslim influence expanded across the
Middle East and into
North Africa. By A.D. 711, the light cavalry of Muslim warriors had reached
Spain,
and controlled most of the
Iberian peninsula by 720. Their mounts were of various oriental types, including both the
Arabian horse and the
Barb horse of North Africa.
Muslim invaders traveled north from
Spain into
France, where they were stopped by
Charles Martel at the
Battle of Tours in A.D. 732. Arabian and other oriental horses captured in the wake of this defeat were crossed with local stock, adding agility to the heavier animals, influencing the development of the
Percheron, one of the breeds of horse destined to become the great
Destrier of the mounted
knight.
The Knight
During the
Middle Ages in
Europe, there were three primary types of horses used in warfare: The
Destrier, the
Courser, and the
Rouncey.
[38] The Rouncey was the everyday horse of a
squire or for the mounted
man-at-arms, suitable for riding or for war. The Courser was a strong, fast horse, well-suited to hard warfare, while the more-famous, highly-trained Destrier was reserved for the richest knights and nobility. In later periods it was used predominantly in
tournaments. (A generic name often used to describe medieval war horses is ''
charger,'' which appears interchangeable with the other terms).
The
Destrier was a horse of somewhat greater height and weight to accommodate heavier
armoured
knights. For example, the horse ridden by
William of Normandy in the
Battle of Hastings in
1066 was said to be an
Iberian-type animal such as the modern
Andalusian, at about 15.2
hands (62 in., 1.57 m) tall.
[39] 
Museum Display of horse and knight
plate armour c.16th or 17th century. This set may have been designed solely for ceremonial purposes. Full suits of plate armor were not used in combat after 1650. Zwinger Museum, Dresden.
Despite the popular image of a European
knight on horseback charging into battle, pitched battles were avoided, if at all possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges,
[40]or swift mounted raids called ''
chevauchées'', with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses.
[41]
As time passed, the mounted knight was seen less on the battlefield and more often as a competitor in
Tournaments, less warlike events with stylized pagentry.
[42] Larger horses, possibly as tall as 17 hands (68 in., 1.73 m) and 1,500 pounds (750 kg), with the strength to carry both a
knight and stylized
plate armour were developed.
[43][44] In addition to height and weight, this type of horse was selected for agility and trainability. The expense of keeping, training and outfitting these specialized horses prevented the majority of the population from owning them.
Stallions were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot-blooded tendencies. A thirteenth century work describes destriers "biting and kicking" on the battlefield.
[45] However, the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references.
were the preferred war horse of the
Moors, the
Islamic invaders who attacked various European nations from A.D. 700 through the 15th Century.
[46]
Experts dispute the precise cause of the demise of the armored knight. Some claim it was the invention of
gunpowder and the
musket.
[47] Others date it earlier, to the use of the
English longbow that was introduced into
England from
Wales in
1250 and used with decisive force in conflicts such as the
Battle of Crécy in
1346.
[48] In either case, although equipment became heavier and
chain mail gave way to plate armor, weapons technology evolved faster yet and came to effectively counter the force of heavily-armored knights as shock troops.
It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of destriers as the type seems to disappear from record during the seventeenth century.
[49] The great horse was both smaller and more agile than the modern
draft horse, with breeds such as the
Andalusian,
[39] and
Friesian[51] claiming to be the direct descendants of destriers. However,
draft horse breeds such as the
Belgian,
Percheron and
Shire horse also claim descent from the horses developed to carry full armour.
[52]
Warfare in the Renaissance and Early Modern Period
"Napoleon I with his Generals." This painting shows the light cavalry horses used as officer's mounts in 18th and 19th century European warfare.
Native Americans quickly adopted the horse and were highly effective light cavalry. ''Comanche-Osage fight.'' George Catlin, 1834
With the development of muskets and other light firearms during the late
Middle Ages and
Renaissance, light
cavalry again became useful for both battles and field communication, using fast, agile horses to move quickly across battlefields. The once-proud heavy armored horse of the medieval knight had little use in combat and was relegated to hauling cannons and wagons of supplies.
Horses were particularly useful in the 16th century as a weapon of war for the
Conquistadors. When these
Spanish warriors came to the Americas and conquered the
Aztec and
Inca empires, horses and gunpowder provided a crucial edge. Because the horse had been extinct in the
Western Hemisphere for approximately 10,000 years, the
Indigenous peoples of the Americas had no warfare technologies that could overcome the considerable advantage provided by
European horses and weapons. However, the
American Indian people quickly learned to use horses, and the tribes of the
Great Plains, such as the
Comanche and the
Cheyenne, became renowned horseback fighters, again demonstrating the efficiency of light cavalry, eventually becoming a considerable problem for the
United States Army.
A demonstration of a saber charge by the Horse Cavalry detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry, which demonstrates many of the tools, weapons and techniques used during the 1880s
20th century uses and the transition to modern warfare
Light cavalry was still seen on the battlefield at the beginning of the
20th century. Though formal mounted
cavalry began to be phased out as fighting forces during or immediately after
World War I, cavalry units that included horses still had military uses well into
World War II.
[53] The most famous example was the underequipped Polish army, which used its horse cavalry in
World War II to defend
Poland against the armies of
Nazi Germany. While there is a popular belief that the Polish cavalry engaged in futile charges against
tank units, this is a misconception. Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorized vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position.
[54] Second, the most famous
Polish cavalry charge during World War II was a
successful charge near the town of Mokra on the first day of the war on
German infantry. The Polish cavalry was eventually driven off by
Armoured personnel carriers with the loss of 20 soldiers. Nonetheless, Nazi propagandists used the image of dead horses and tanks which arrived after ther battle to ridicule the efforts of the Poles.
[55]
Other nations used horses extensively during WWII, though not necessarily in direct combat. The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end of the war, not only to transport ammunitions and equipment, but also for reconnaissance and counter-insurgency efforts. The British Army used
mules in
India and
Southeast Asia as pack animals. While the
United States Army utilized a few cavalry and supply units during the war, there were concerns that in rough terrain, horses were not used often enough. In the campaigns in
North Africa, generals such as
George S. Patton lamented their lack, saying, "had we possessed an American cavalry division with pack artillery in Tunisia and in Sicily, not a German would have escaped."
[53]
Horses in the military today
Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division demonstrating a mock cavalry charge at Fort Bliss, Texas
U.S. special forces troops on horseback in Afghanistan, 2001
With the rise of the internal combustion engine, horses in formal national militias were displaced by modern
tank warfare, which, ironically, is sometimes still referred to as "cavalry." Today, formal combat units of mounted cavalry are a thing of the past, with horseback units within the modern military used for reconnaissance, ceremonial, or crowd control purposes. Organized armed fighters on horseback are occasionally seen, particularly in the
third world, though they usually are not officially recognized as part of any national army. The best-known current examples are the
Janjaweed, militia groups seen in the
Darfur region of
Sudan, who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations in the
Darfur conflict.
[57]
Reconnaissance and patrol
Although horses have little combat use today by modern armies, the military of many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the current conflict in
Afghanistan.
Hungary, some
British Commonwealth countries,
Balkan countries, and the former Soviet republics of
Central Asia maintain cavalry units as part of light
infantry and reconnaissance formations for use in mountainous terrain or areas where fuel supply may be difficult.
Ceremonial and educational uses
Horse Guards in London
Many countries throughout the world maintain traditionally-trained and historically uniformed cavalry units for ceremonial, exhibition, demonstration or educational purposes. One example is the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's
1st Cavalry Division.
[58] This unit, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s.
[59] The horse detachment is headquartered at Fort Hood, Texas and is charged with public relations, change of command ceremonies and public appearances.
[60] A similar detachment is the Governor General's Horse Guards, Canada's
Household Cavalry regiment and the last remaining mounted cavalry unit in the Canadian Forces.
[61] Another currently active horse regiment is India's 61st Cavalry.
Modern uses of horses derived from military uses
Today, many of the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications, including exhibitions, everyday work, and competitive events.
Historical reenactment
Horses are trained to be able to reenact historical battle scenes today. Examples include the
Battle of Hastings reenactment and the
American Civil War reenactment. Due to changes between ancient and modern horses, equipment and materials, it is sometimes difficult to create reenactments that are fully authentic with original equipment and horse breeds of the represented time, though, to the greatest extent possible, many reenactors attempt to accurately reflect details of equipment, training, weaponry and battlefield conditions.
Law enforcement and public safety
Mounted policeman in
Poznań, Poland
The
Police Horse is a fixture in many large cities, used for patrol and crowd control. Ceremonial horse guards, often in historical regalia, are seen in some major cities, such as
London, performing traditional sentry and guard duties.
In rural areas of the
United States,
Canada, and other nations, many local, offices such as that of the county
Sheriff have specially deputized, usually volunteer,
search and rescue units who are often sent out on horseback to locate missing people.
[62] Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.
[63]
Equestrian competition
The modern
Olympic disciplines of
eventing,
show jumping, and
dressage all have roots in the skills required of the light cavalry horse of the 17th through 19th centuries.
Dressage is based of the works of
Xenophon and his cavalry training methods, most notably ''
On Horsemanship'', but had its greatest revival during the
Renaissance. Training methods were developed to create a responsive, supple horse that could quickly respond to his rider's commands, as was critical when riding on the dangerous ground of the battlefield. The
Spanish Riding School of
Vienna,
Austria was originally created to train horses and members of the nobility for combat, but today is one of the great schools for developing horses and riders in the
classical dressage tradition.
Tent Pegging is a modern sport that preserves ancient combat skills. ''Photo credit: Suresh Sharma''
had a more recent development, first occurring in the late 1800s as a competitive
endurance ride that included jumping obstacles. The discipline eventually added a dressage phase, to test the ability of the cavalry mount on the parade ground, the endurance phase, to test the mount's fitness and ability to carry messages across the countryside, traveling quickly over rough terrain, and the stadium jumping phase, as a test to ensure that the mount was still fit enough to continue after the rigors of the endurance competition. It evolved into the modern three-phase competition seen today.
Show jumping, primarily derived from the sports of
fox hunting and
steeplechasing as well as informal "lepping" competitions between civilian riders, is the farthest removed from direct military applications. However military units also developed jumping skills to cross formidable obstacles, crucial for carrying messages and coordinating troop movements. Leaders in the development of modern riding technique over fences, such as
Fredrico Caprilli, came from military ranks.
The
Olympic equestrian national teams of the modern Olympics were originally drawn exclusively from the male officer ranks of the military until 1952.
[64] After that time, both civilian and military competitors competed together until most cavalry units were disbanded in the postwar era, and today most team members are drawn almost entirely from civilian ranks. Today, the equestrian events are the only Olympic competition where men and women compete together.
The modern sport of
tent pegging is specifically designed to train the horse and its rider in the skills of mounted combat.
[65][66]
References
1. "Heavier Riders' Guide", Beverly Whittington and Rhonda Hart-Poe, 1999
2. Devereux, Frederick L. ''The Cavalry Manual of Horse Management,'' 1941
3. Edwards, Gladys Brown. ''The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse.'' Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing, 1973.
4. Chamberlin, J. Edward. ''Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations'' Bluebridge, 2006. ISBN 0-9742405-9-1
5. Russian Draft Horses "Comparison of Pulling Weights for Russian Draft Breeds" ''Note: Traction force of horses pulling a load, as measured by a dynamometer, can be between 50 and 300 kgf, depending on speed and distance.''
6. "History of the draft horse dynamometer machine"
7. To get the traction force in newtons (SI units) multiply kilograms-force by 9.80665. The traction power corresponds to the friction force of the pulled object and in case additionally to its downhill-slope force.
8. Eastern Draft Horse Association Rules
9. "2006 National Championships"
10. "History of the draft horse dynamometer machine"
11. Davis, R. ''The Medieval Warhorse'', London:Thames and Hudson, 1989;
12. Bennett, Deb. ''Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship.'' Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
13. Prestwich, Michael. ''Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 30
14. Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. ''Daily Life in Medieval Times'', UK: Grange Books, 2005, p 88 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
15. See e.g.: Clark, John (Ed). ''The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c.1150-c.1450'', Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004, p 23; Prestwich, Michael. ''Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 30
16. Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers." ''Western Horseman,'' December 2006, pp. 45-50
17. Eating Up Italy: Voyages on a Vespa by Matthew Fort. 2005, p171. ISBN 0-00-721481-2
18. Hope, Lt. Col. C.E.G. ''The Horseman's Manual'' New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972. ISBN-10: 0684136228, ISBN-13: 978-0684136226, ch. 1 and 2.
19. Asler, Wolfgang. "The Oldest Pedigree Chart." ''The Journal of Heredity'', June 1935, pp. 233-238
20. Trench, Charles Chenevix. ''A History of Horsemanship.'' Longman Group, Ltd., London, 1970, p. 16
21. "Early horseback riding and warfare in the steppes," Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies, accessed December 17, 2006.
22. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.
23. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 317.
24. "The Horse in History" interview with Jonica Newby, Jared Diamond and David Anthony, ''The Science Show'', broadcast 13 November 1999
25. "The invention and influences of stirrup"
26. "Stirrup", accessed December 4, 2006
27. Dien, Albert. "The Stirrup and its Effect on Chinese Military History"
28. Pritchard, James B. ''The Ancient Near East,'' Vol. 1, Princeton University Press, 1958. Illustration 97.
29. "The origin of the true chariot"
30. ''The Cambridge Ancient History'', vol. II, part 1, third ed., Cambridge University Press, 1975, pp. 493-495.
31. Hitti, Phillip K. ''Lebanon in History,'' MacMillan and Co., London, 1957, pp. 77-78.
32. ''The Cambridge Ancient History'', vol. II, part 1, third ed., Cambridge University Press, 1975, pp. 57, 452, 458.
33. ''The Cambridge Ancient History'', vol. II, part 1, third ed., Cambridge University Press, 1975, p. 493
34. "Horseback riding and chariots" Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies, accessed December 17, 2006
35. "China - History of the Horse"
36. Rice, Tamare Talbot. ''The Scythians,'' New York: Praeger, Inc.,1957
37. Ebrey, 29-30.
38. Oakeshott, Ewart, ''A Knight and his Horse'', Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998
39. Killingsworth, William R. "Andalusian"
40. Bennet, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. ''Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500'', London: Amber Books, 2005.
41. Chevauchées were the preferred form of warfare for the English during the Hundred Years' War (see, amongst many, Barber, Richard. ''The Reign of Chivalry'', 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press, 2005, pp 34-38) and the Scots in the Wars of Independence (see Prestwich, Michael. ''Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996)
42. Barber, Richard. ''The Reign of Chivalry'', 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press, 2005, p. 42
43. Alvarez, Richard P. "The Horse: Selection and Training," ''Mounted Combat'' 2000, accessed November 1, 2006
44. "Shire Draft Horse
45. Bumke, Joachim. ''Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages'', translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000, p 175-178 (First published in 1986 as ''Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter'' by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
46. Edwards, Gladys Brown. The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse. Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing, 1973.
47. ISAAC NEWTON AND THE ASSAULT RIFLE: Body Armor Innovations. "...with the introduction of modern firearms such as the musket, full body armor was rendered obsolete almost overnight."
48. Military and War Weapons the Longbow
49. Prestwich, Michael. ''Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996
50. Killingsworth, William R. "Andalusian"
51. "Friesian horse"
52. "Shire Horse History"
53. Waller, Anna L. "Horses and Mules and National Defense" 1958, Office of the Quartermaster General
54. "The New Pictures." ''Time'', Apr. 22, 1940
55. "1939"
56. Waller, Anna L. "Horses and Mules and National Defense" 1958, Office of the Quartermaster General
57. Lacey, Marc. "In Sudan, Militiamen on Horses Uproot a Million." ''New York Times,'' May 4, 2004
58. First Team! Horse Cavalry Detachment
59. Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers." ''Western Horseman,'' December 2006, pp. 45-50
60. ''Id.''
61. "Governor General's Horse Guards", Department of National Defence, retrieved 06 January 2007
62. Northwest Horseback Search and Rescue. Example of a mounted search and rescue organization in the state of Washington, USA
63. Why Search on Horseback? Northwest Horseback Search and Rescue web site, accessed November 9, 2006
64. "Olympic History", United Kingdom Olympic Association, retrieved 08 November 2006
65. "Tent pegging recognised by the FEI", International Federation for Equestrian Sports, 2004, retrieved 08 November 2006
66. "Tent pegging with Unicef Team Canada", ''Practical Idealism,'' 2007, retrieved 12 January, 2007
Bibliography
★ Anthony, David W. (1998). "The opening of the Eurasian steppe at 2000 BC." In ''The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern Central Asia,'' ed. Victor H. Mair, vol. 1. (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 26). Washington, D.C.: The Institute for the Study of Man.
★ Bennett, Deb. ''Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship.'' Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
★ Chamberlin, J. Edward. ''Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations.'' Bluebridge, 2006, p. 166-167 ISBN 0-9742405-9-1
★ Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006). ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
★ Edwards, Gladys Brown. ''The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse.'' Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing, 1973.
★ Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
See also
★
Kikkuli
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Xenophon
★
cavalry
★
cavalry tactics
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chariot
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chariot tactics
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Classical dressage
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Equestrianism
★
bicycle infantry
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Tank warfare
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London lobsters - The English Civil War armoured cavalry unit formed and lead by Sir Arthur Haselrig.
External links
★
The Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies (IAES)
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New Riders of the Golden Age Modern performers of authentic full contact jousts on Belgian, Percheron, Shire, and Clydesdale horses.
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The British Cavalry Regiments of 1914-1918 The British Cavalry Regiments of 1914-1918
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The Spanish Mustang Registry (preservers of the warhorse of ancient Spain)
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United States Dressage Federation
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Home Page of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna, where the "high school" art of Dressage preserves the ancient movements and maneuvers of the war horse.
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Manual about horses in the battle of Hastings reenactment
★
The Society of the Military Horse
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