: ''This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania. There are other regions called Wallachia, such as the
Moravian Wallachia and the
Thessaly Wallachia; See:
Vlachs#Wallachia.''
Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow.
'Wallachia' (also spelled 'Walachia'; or "The Romanian Land") is a
historical and geographical region of
Romania. It is sometimes referred to as ''
Muntenia'', through identification with the larger of its two traditional sections. A
principality founded by
Basarab I in the late
Middle Ages, Wallachia united with
Moldavia (the other
Danubian Principality) in the
19th century, to form the state of Romania.
Name
The name ''Wallachia'', generally not used by
Romanians themselves (but present in some contexts as ''Valahia'' or ''Vlahia''), is derived from the
Valachs - a word of
German origin also present as the
Slavic ''Vlachs'' - used by foreigners in reference to Romanians (''see also:
History of the term Vlach'').
For long periods before the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as ''Vlaško'' by
Bulgarian sources (and ''Vlaška'' by
Serbian sources). The traditional
Hungarian name for Wallachia is ''Havasalföld'', or literally "Snowy Lowlands" (the older form is ''Havaselve'', which means "Land beyond the snowy mountains"). The name ''Ungrovlahia'' ("Hungarian Wallachia"), mostly used in an
Orthodox Church context to refer to the
Metropolitan seat, denotes the neighborhood position in regard to the
Hungarian Kingdom, meaning "Wallachia near the Hungarian Crown".
[1] In
Ottoman Turkish and
Turkish, ''Eflak'', a word derived from "Vlach", is used.
Geography
Wallachia is situated north of the
Danube (and of present-day
Serbia and
Bulgaria) and south of the
Southern Carpathians, and is traditionally divided between
Muntenia in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), and
Oltenia (a former
banat) in the west. The division line between the two is the
Olt River.
Wallachia's traditional border with
Moldavia coincided with the
Milcov River for most of its length. To the east, over the Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighbours
Dobruja (
Northern Dobruja). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border with
Transylvania;
Wallachian princes have for long held possession of areas north of the this line (
Amlaş,
Ciceu,
Făgăraş, and
Haţeg), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia-proper.
The capital city changed over time, from
Câmpulung to
Curtea de Argeş, then to
Târgovişte and, after the late 1500s, to
Bucharest.
History
From Roman rule to the state's establishment
Main articles: Origin of the Romanians,
Romania in the Early Middle Ages
In the
Second Dacian War (
105 AD) western Oltenia became part of the
Roman province of
Dacia, with parts of Wallachia included in the
Moesia Inferior province. The Roman ''
limes'' was initially built along the Olt River (
119), before being moved slightly to the east in the
2nd century — during which time it stretched from the
Danube up to
Rucăr in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in
245, and, in
271, the Romans pulled out of the region.
The area was subject to
Romanization sometime during the
Migration Period, when most of present-day Romania was also subject to the presence of
Goths and
Sarmatian peoples know as the
Mureş-Cerneahov culture, followed by waves of other
nomadic peoples. In
328, the Romans built a bridge between
Sucidava (
Celei) and
Oescus (near
Gigen) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube (a short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under
Emperor Constantine I).
[2] The Goths attacked the Roman Empire south of the Danube in
332, settling north of the Danube then later to the south. The period of Goth rule ended when the
Huns arrived in the
Pannonian Plain, and, under
Attila, attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.
Byzantine influence is evident during the 5th to 6th century, such as the site at
Ipoteşti-Cândeşti, but from the second half of the
6th century and in the
7th century Slavic peoples crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.
[3] In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief Priscus defeated Slavs,
Avars and
Gepids on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area;
Flavius Mauricius Tiberius, who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.
[4]
Wallachia was under the control of the
First Bulgarian Empire from its establishment in
681, until approximately the
Magyar conquest of
Transylvania at the end of the 10th century. With the decline and subsequent fall of the Bulgarian state to Byzantium (in the second half of the 10th century up to
1018), Wallachia came under the control of the
Pechenegs (a
Turkic people) who extended their rule west through the 10th and 11th century, until defeated around 1091, when the
Cumans of southern
Russia took control of the lands of Moldavia and Wallachia.
[5] Beginning with the
10th century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others,
Vlachs/
Romanians led by ''
knyazes'' and ''
voivodes'' - at first in Transylvania, then in the
12th-
13th centuries in the territories east and south of the Carpathians.
In
1241, during the
Mongol invasion of Europe, Cuman domination was ended - a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested, but it remains probable.
[6] Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the
Hungarian Kingdom and
Bulgarians in the following period,
[6] but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.
[8]
Creation
One of the first written evidence of local voivodes is in connection with
Litovoi (
1272), who ruled over land each side of the Carpathians (including
Făgăraş in Transylvania), and refused to pay
tribute to the
Hungarian King Ladislaus IV. His successor was his brother
Bărbat (1285-1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (
1285-
1319) and the fall of the
Árpád dynasty opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and to independence from Hungarian rule.
Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one ''
Radu Negru'', is historically connected with
Basarab I (1310-1352), who rebelled against
Charles I of Hungary and took up rule on either side of the
Olt River, establishing his residence in
Câmpulung as the first ruler in the
House of Basarab. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of
Făgăraş,
Amlaş and the
Banat of Severin, defeated Charles in the
Battle of Posada (
1330), and extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as
Kilia (in the
Bujak, as the origin of ''
Bessarabia'');
[9] rule over the latter was not preserved by following princes, as Kilia fell to the
Nogais ca.
1334.
[10]
Basarab was succeeded by
Nicolae Alexandru, followed by
Vladislav I. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after
Louis I occupied lands south of the
Danube, conceded to recognize him as
overlord in
1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the
Ottoman Turks (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with
Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria).
[11] Under
Radu I and his successor
Dan I, the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.
[12]
1400-1600
Main articles: Romania in the Middle Ages
Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great
Wallachia and possessions, ca. 1390
[13]
As the entire
Balkan Peninsula become an integral part of the emerging
Ottoman Empire (a process which concluded with the
fall of Constantinople to
Sultan Mehmed II in
1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations and, in the final years of
Mircea the Elder's reign, became an Ottoman subject. Mircea (reigned 1386-1418), initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles (including
that of Rovine in
1394), driving them away from
Dobruja and briefly extending his rule to the
Danube Delta, Dobruja and
Silistra (ca.
1400-
1404).
[14] He oscillated between alliances with
Sigismund of Hungary and
Jagiellon Poland (taking part in the
Battle of Nicopolis),
[15] and accepted Ottoman
suzerainty in
1415, after
Mehmed I took control of
Turnu and
Giurgiu — the two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until
1829. In 1418-1420,
Mihail I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when
Dan II inflicted a defeat on
Murad II with the help of
Pippo Spano.
[16]
The peace signed in
1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against
Radu Prasnaglava, who led the first in a series of
boyar coalitions against established princes (in time, these became overtly pro-Ottoman in answer to repression).
[17] Victorious in
1431 (the year when the boyar-backed
Alexandru I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by
Vlad II Dracul (1436-1442; 1443-1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the
Porte and the
Holy Roman Empire.
[18]
The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of
Dăneşti and
Drăculeşti, the influence of
John Hunyadi,
Regent of the
Kingdom of Hungary, and, after the neutral reign of
Vladislav II,
[19] by the rise of
Vlad III Dracula. Vlad, during whose rule
Bucharest was first mentioned as a princely residence, exercised terror on rebellious boyars, cut off all links with the Ottomans, and, in
1462, defeated
Mehmed II's offensive during
The Night Attack before being forced to retreat to
Târgovişte and accepting to pay an increased tribute.
[20] His parallel conflicts with the pretenders
Radu cel Frumos and
Laiotă Basarab brought occupations of Wallachia by the troops of
Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and the
Moldavian prince Stephen III (1473; 1476-1477).
[21] Radu the Great (1495-1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with
Bogdan the Blind of Moldavia.
[22]
Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel
The late 1400s saw the ascension of the powerful
Craioveşti family, virtually independent rulers of the
Oltenian
banat, who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with
Mihnea cel Rău (1508-1510) and replaced him with
Vlăduţ; after the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of
Neagoe Basarab, a Craioveşti.
[23] Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512-1521), noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the
Curtea de Argeş Cathedral and
Renaissance influences), also saw an increase in influence for the
Saxon merchands in
Braşov and
Sibiu, and Wallachia's alliance with
Louis II of Hungary.
[24] Under
Teodosie, the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration which seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian ''
Pashaluk''.
[25] This danger rallied all boyars in support of
Radu de la Afumaţi (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craioveşti and Sultan
Süleyman the Magnificent; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain, and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.
[25]
Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century
Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years.
Radu Paisie, who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of
Brăila to Ottoman administration in the same year; his successor
Mircea Ciobanul (1545-1554; 1558-1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing
taxes and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania — supporting the pro-Turkish
John Zápolya).
[27] Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of
Pătraşcu cel Bun, and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under
Petru the Younger (1559-1568; a reign dominated by
Doamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes),
Mihnea Turcitul, and
Petru Cercel.
[28]
The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and matainance of its
military forces; the
local army, however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of
mercenary troops.
[29]
1600s
Main articles: Early Modern Romania
Fighting between Michael the Brave and the Ottomans in
Giurgiu, 1595
Initially profiting from Ottoman support,
Michael the Brave ascended to the throne in
1593, and attacked the troops of
Murad III north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's
Sigismund Báthory and Moldavia's
Aron Vodă (''see
Battle of Călugăreni''). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of
Rudolf II, the
Holy Roman Emperor, and, in
1599-
1600, intervened in Transylvania against
Poland's
king Sigismund III Vasa, placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to Moldavia later in the following year.
[30] Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish-Moldavian army of
Simion Movilă (''see
Moldavian Magnate Wars''), who held the region until
1602, and was subject to
Nogai attacks in the same year.
[31]
The last stage in the
Growth of the Ottoman Empire brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in
Târgovişte in favour of
Bucharest (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly-growing trade center), the establishment of
serfdom under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase
manorial revenues, and the decrese in importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in the ''
seimeni'' rebellion of
1655).
[32] Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of
Greek and
Levantine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of
Radu Mihnea in the early 1600s.
[33] Matei Basarab, a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632-1654), with the noted exception of the
1653 Battle of Finta, fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince
Vasile Lupu — ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite,
Gheorghe Ştefan, on the throne in
Iaşi. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ştefan and Matei's successor
Constantin Şerban was maintained by Transylvania's
George II Rákóczi, but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops of
Mehmed IV in
1658-
1659.
[34] The reigns of
Gheorghe Ghica and
Grigore I Ghica, the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the
Băleanu and
Cantacuzino boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s.
[35] The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and the
Ghicas, backed their own choice of princes (
Antonie Vodă din Popeşti and
George Ducas)
[36] before promoting themselves — with the ascension of
Şerban Cantacuzino (1678-1688).
Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes
Main articles: History of the Russo-Turkish Wars,
Phanariotes
Wallachia became a target for
Habsburg incursions during the last stages of the
Great Turkish War ca.
1690, when the ruler
Constantin Brâncoveanu secretly and unsuccessfully negotatied an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688-1714), noted for its late
Renaissance cultural achievements (''see
Brâncovenesc style''), also coincided with the rise of
Imperial Russia under
Emperor Peter the Great — he was approached by the latter during the
Russo-Turkish War of 1710-1711, and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan
Ahmed III caught news of the negotiations.
[37] Despite his denounciation of Brâncoveanu's policies,
Ştefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of
Prince Eugene of Savoy; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.
[38]
Immediately following the depostion of Prince Ştefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal
elective system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the
Boyar Divan over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two
Danubian Principalities were appointed from the
Phanariotes of
Istanbul. Inaugurated by
Nicholas Mavrocordatos in Moldavia after
Dimitrie Cantemir, Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in
1715 by the very same ruler.
[39] The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a
privilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,
[40] and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.
[41]
In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg Monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the
Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18, as the Ottomans had to concede
Oltenia to
Charles VI of Austria (the
Treaty of Passarowitz).
[42] The region, subject to an
enlightened absolutist rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in
1739 (the
Treaty of Belgrade, upon the close of the
Austro-Turkish War of 1737-39). Prince
Constantine Mavrocordatos, who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of
serfdom in
1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into
Transylvania);
[43] during this period, the
ban of Oltenia moved his residence from
Craiova to
Bucharest, signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal
treasury with that of the country, a move towards
centralism.
[44]
In
1768, during the
Fifth Russo-Turkish War, Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of
Pârvu Cantacuzino).
[45] The
Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (
1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of
Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures — including the decrease in sums owed as
tribute[46] — and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.
[47]
Habsburg troops, under
Prince Josias of Coburg, again entered the country during the
Russo-Turkish-Austrian War, deposing
Nicholas Mavrogenis in
1789.
[48] A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of
Osman Pazvantoğlu, a powerful rebellious
pasha whose raids even caused prince
Constantine Hangerli to lose his life on suspicion of treason (
1799), and
Alexander Mourousis to renounce his throne (
1801).
[49] In
1806, the
Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812 was partly instigated by the
Porte's deposition of
Constantine Ypsilantis in Bucharest — in tune with the
Napoleonic Wars, it was instigated by the
French Empire, and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the
Danubian Principalities); the war brought the invasion of
Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich.
[50]
Principality of Wallachia, 1793-1812, highlighted in green
After the
Peace of Bucharest, the rule of
Ioan Gheorghe Caragea, although remembered for a major
plague epidemic, was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures.
[51] During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion;
consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to ''
sudiţi'' traders (who soon competed successfully against local
guilds).
[52]
From Wallachia to Romania
Main articles: National awakening of Romania
Early 1800s
The death of prince
Alexander Soutzos in
1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the
Greek War of Independence, established a boyar
regency which attempted to block the arrival of
Scarlat Callimachi to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel
uprising in Oltenia, carried out by the
Pandur leader
Tudor Vladimirescu, although aimed at overthrowing the ascendancy of
Greeks,
[53] compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the
Filiki Eteria and allied itself with the regents,
[54] while seeking Russian support
[55] (''see also:
Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire'').
On
March 21, 1821, Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;
[56] Eteria's leader
Alexander Ypsilantis, who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken — he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and
Drăgăşani (before retreating to
Austrian custody in
Transylvania).
[57] These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made
Sultan Mahmud II place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers),
[58] and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was
Grigore IV Ghica. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating
Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829.
[59]
The
1829 Treaty of Adrianople, without overturning Ottoman
suzerainty, placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, awarding them the first common institutions and the semblance of a
constitution (''see
Regulamentul Organic''). Wallachia was returned ownership of
Brăila,
Giurgiu (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the
Danube), and
Turnu Măgurele.
[60] The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation.
[61] Many of the provisions had been specified by the
1826 Akkerman Convention between Russia and the Ottomans (it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval).
[62] The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general
Pavel Kiselyov; this interval was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a
Wallachian Army (
1831), a
tax reform (which nonetheless confirmed
tax exemptions for the
privileged), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.
[63] In
1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by
Alexandru II Ghica — a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new
Legislative Assembly; removed by the suzerains in
1842, he was replaced with an elected prince,
Gheorghe Bibescu.
[64]
1840s-1850s
Main articles: 1848 Wallachian revolution
1848 Revolutionaries carrying an early version of the
Romanian flag
Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly
conservative rule, together with the rise of
liberal and
radical currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by
Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed);
[65] subsequently, it became increasingly
conspiratorial, and centered on those
secret societies created by young officers such as
Nicolae Bălcescu and
Mitică Filipescu.
[66]
''Frăţia'', a clandestine movement created in
1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal ''Regulamentul Organic'' in
1848 (inspired by the
European rebellions of the same year). Their pan-Wallachian ''
coup d'état'' was initially successful only near
Turnu Măgurele, where crowds cheered the ''
Islaz Proclamation'' (
June 21); among others, the document called for
political freedoms, independence,
land reform, and the creation of a national guard.
[67] On
June 11-
12, the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government. Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on
September 13.
[68] Russian and Turkish troops, present until
1851, brought
Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.
Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the
Crimean War, Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral
Austrian administration (
1854-
1856) and the
Treaty of Paris: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of
Great Powers (the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the
Second French Empire, the
Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire,
Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a ''
kaymakam''-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the
Danubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.
[69]
After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the ''
ad-hoc divans'' of
1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and
Iaşi).
Alexander John Cuza, who ran for the unionist ''
Partida Naţională'', won the elections in Moldavia on
January 5; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its ''divan''.
[70]
Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,
[70] and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on
February 5 (
January 24 Old Style), consequently confirmed as ''
Domnitor'' of the ''United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia'' (''of Romania'' from
1861). Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of
Carol I in
1866 (coinciding with the
Austro-Prussian War, it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).
See also
★
Flag and coat of arms of Wallachia
★
History of Bucharest
★
List of Wallachian rulers
Notes
1. Dinu C. Giurescu, ''Istoria ilustrată a românilor'', Editura Sport-Turism, Bucharest, 1981, p.236
2. Giurescu, p.37; Ştefănescu, p.155
3. Giurescu, p.38
4. Warren Treadgold, ''A Concise History of Byzantium'', New York, St Martin's Press, 2001
5. Giurescu, p.39-40
6. Giurescu, p.39
7. Giurescu, p.39
8. Ştefănescu, p.111
9. Ştefănescu, p.114
10. Ştefănescu, p.119
11. Ştefănescu, p.93-94
12. Ştefănescu, p.94
13. Petre Dan, ''Hotarele românismului în date'', Litera International, 2005, ISBN 973-675-278-X, pp. 32, 34
14. Ştefănescu, p.139
15. Ştefănescu, p.97
16. Ştefănescu, p.105
17. Ştefănescu, p.105-106
18. Ştefănescu, p.106
19. Ştefănescu, p.110
20. Ştefănescu, p.115-118
21. Ştefănescu, p.117-118; 125
22. Ştefănescu, p.146
23. Ştefănescu, p.140-141
24. Ştefănescu, p.141-144
25. Ştefănescu, p.144-145
26. Ştefănescu, p.144-145
27. Ştefănescu, p.162
28. Ştefănescu, p.163-164
29. Berza; Djuvara, p.24-26
30. Ştefănescu, p.169-180
31. Giurescu, p.65, 68
32. Giurescu, p.68-69, 73-75
33. Giurescu, p.68-69, 78, 268
34. Giurescu, p.74
35. Giurescu, p.78
36. Giurescu, p.78-79
37. Djuvara, p.31, 157, 336
38. Djuvara, p.31, 336
39. Djuvara, p.31-32
40. Djuvara, p.67-70
41. Djuvara, p.124
42. Djuvara, p.48, 92; Giurescu, p.94-96
43. Djuvara, p.48, 68, 91-92, 227-228, 254-256; Giurescu, p.93
44. Djuvara, p.59, 71; Giurescu, p.93
45. Djuvara, p.285; Giurescu, p.98-99
46. Berza
47. Djuvara, p.76
48. Giurescu, p.105-106
49. Djuvara, p.17-19, 282; Giurescu, p.107
50. Djuvara, p.284-286; Giurescu, p.107-109
51. Djuvara, p.165, 168-169; Giurescu, p.252
52. Djuvara, p.184-187; Giurescu, p.114, 115, 288
53. Djuvara, p.89, 299
54. Djuvara, p.297
55. Giurescu, p.115
56. Djuvara, p.298
57. Djuvara, p.301; Giurescu, p.116-117
58. Djuvara, p.307
59. Djuvara, p.321
60. Giurescu, p.122, 127
61. Djuvara, p.262, 324; Giurescu, p.127, 266
62. Djuvara, p.323
63. Djuvara, p.323-324; Giurescu, p.122-127
64. Djuvara, p.325
65. Djuvara, p.329; Giurescu, p.134
66. Djuvara, p.330; Giurescu, p.132-133
67. Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.133-134
68. Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.136-137
69. Giurescu, p.139-141
70. Giurescu, p.142
71. Giurescu, p.142
References
★ Mihai Berza, "Haraciul Moldovei şi al Ţării Româneşti în sec. XV–XIX", in ''Studii şi Materiale de Istorie Medie'', II, 1957, p.7–47
★
Neagu Djuvara, ''Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne'', Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995
★
Constantin C. Giurescu, ''Istoria Bucureştilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre'', Ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1966
★ Ştefan Ştefănescu, ''Istoria medie a României'', Vol. I, Bucharest, 1991
External links
★
The Romanian Group for an Alternative History Website - provides monument information, original documents, books, studies and other info concerning the Romanian Middle Ages
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