'Vietnam' (), officially the 'Socialist Republic of Vietnam', is the easternmost nation on the
Indochina Peninsula. It is bordered by
China to the north,
Laos to the northwest, and
Cambodia to the southwest. On the country's east coast lies the
South China Sea. With a
population of over 85 million, Vietnam is the
13th most populous country in the world. The country is listed among the "
Next Eleven" economies; according to government figures,
GDP growth was 8.17% in 2006, the
second fastest growth rate among countries in
East Asia and the fastest in
Southeast Asia.
History
Main articles: History of Vietnam
Pre-Dynastic era
The area now known as Vietnam has been inhabited since
Paleolithic times, and some archaeological sites in Thanh Hoa Province reportedly date back several thousand years. Archaeologists link the beginnings of Vietnamese civilization to the late
Neolithic,
Early Bronze Age, Phung-nguyen culture, which was centered in Vinh Phu Province of contemporary Vietnam from about 2000 to 1400
BCE. By about 1200
BCE, the development of wet-
rice cultivation and bronze casting in the
Ma River and
Red River plains led to the development of the
Dong Son culture, notable for its elaborate bronze drums. The bronze weapons, tools, and drums of Dongsonian sites show a Southeast Asian influence that indicates an indigenous origin for the bronze-casting technology. Many small, ancient
copper mine sites have been found in northern Vietnam. Some of the similarities between the Dong Sonian sites and other Southeast Asian sites include the presence of boat-shaped coffins and burial jars, stilt dwellings, and evidence of the customs of betel-nut-chewing and teeth-blackening.
The legendary
Hồng Bà ng Dynasty of the
Hùng kings is considered by many Vietnamese as the first Vietnamese state, known as Văn Lang. In
257 BCE, the last Hùng king gives up Thục Phán and he consolidated the Lạc Việt tribes with his Âu Việt tribes, forming Âu Lạc and proclaiming himself
An DÆ°Æ¡ng VÆ°Æ¡ng. In
207 BCE, a Chinese general named
Zhao Tuo defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into
Nanyue. In
111 BCE, the Chinese
Han Dynasty consolidated Nanyue into their empire.
For the next thousand years, Vietnam was mostly under Chinese rule. Early independence movements such as those of the
TrÆ°ng Sisters and of
Lady Triệu were only briefly successful. It was independent as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Ly Dynasty between
544 and
602. By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not independence, under the Khúc family.
Dynastic era
Battle of Bach Dang river. Silk painting by Năng Hiển.
In 938
CE, a Vietnamese lord named
Ngô Quyá»n defeated Chinese forces at the
Bạch Äằng River and gained independence after 10 centuries under Chinese control. Renamed as Äại Việt, the nation went through a golden era during the
Lý and
Trần Dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Äại Việt repelled three
Mongol invasions of Vietnam. Following the brief
Hồ Dynasty, Vietnamese independence was momentarily interrupted by the Chinese
Ming Dynasty, but was restored by
Lê Lợi, the founder of the
Lê Dynasty.
Feudalism in Vietnam reached its zenith in the Lê Dynasty of the
15th century, especially during the reign of Emperor
Lê Thánh Tông. Between the
11th and
18th centuries, the Vietnamese expanded southward in a process known as nam tiến (''southward expansion''). They eventually conquered the kingdom of
Champa and part of the
Khmer Empire.
Towards the end of the Lê Dynasty, civil strife engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported
Mạc Dynasty challenged the Lê Dynasty's power. After the Mạc Dynasty was defeated, the Lê Dynasty was reinstalled, but with no actual power. Power was divided between the
Trịnh Lords in the North and the
Nguyá»…n Lords in the South, who engaged in a
civil war for more than a hundred years. During this time, the Nguyá»…n expanded southern Vietnam into the
Mekong Delta, annexing the
Champa in the central highlands and the Khmer land in the Mekong. The civil war ended when the
Tây Sơn brothers defeated both and established their new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn Lords led by
Nguyen Anh with the help of the French. Nguyen Anh unified Vietnam, and established the
Nguyá»…n Dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.
French Colonial era
Main articles: Franco-Chinese War,
French Indochina,
Empire of Vietnam
Vietnam's independence ended in the mid-
1800s, when the country was colonized by the
French. The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. A Western-style system of modern education was developed, and
Christianity was introduced into Vietnamese society. Developing a
plantation economy to promote the exports of
tobacco,
indigo,
tea and
coffee, the French largely ignored increasing calls for self-government and civil rights. A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as
Phan Boi Chau,
Phan Chu Trinh, Emperor
Ham Nghi and
Ho Chi Minh calling for independence. However, the French maintained control of their colonies until
World War II, when the
Japanese war in the Pacific triggered the invasion of
French Indochina in 1941. This event was preceded by the establishment of the
Vichy French administration, a puppet state of
Nazi Germany then ally of the
Japanese Empire. The natural resources of Vietnam were exploited for the purposes of the Japanese Empire's military campaigns into the
British Indochinese colonies of
Burma, the
Malay Peninsula and
India.
First Indochina War
Main articles: First Indochina War,
Democratic Republic of Vietnam,
State of Vietnam
In 1941, Viet Minh - a communist and nationalist liberation movement emerged under
Ho Chi Minh, to seek independence for Vietnam from France as well as to oppose the Japanese occupation. Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its
Vietnamese colony in August 1945, Viet Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted independence on September 2
[1]. At same year the
Provisional French Republic sent the
French Far East Expeditionary Corps, which was originally created to fight the Japanese occupation forces, in order to
pacify the liberation movement and to restore French rule. On November 20 1946, triggered by the Haiphong Incident the
First Indochina War between Viet Minh and the French forces ensued, lasting until July 20 1954.
Despite fewer losses—Expeditionary Corps suffered 1/3 the casualties of the China and Soviet-backed Viet Minh—during the course of the war, the U.S.-backed French and
Vietnamese loyalists eventually suffered a major strategic setback at the
Siege of Dien Bien Phu, which allowed Ho Chi Minh to negotiate a ceasefire with a favorable position at the ongoing
Geneva conference of 1954. Colonial administration ended as French Indochina was dissolved, and the contested
State of Vietnam ceased to exist. According to the
Geneva Agreements the country was divided at the
17th parallel into Ho Chi Minh's
North Vietnam and
Ngo Dinh Diem's
South Vietnam after the example of
Korea. This was intended to be temporary, pending an election in 1956, which never took place.
Vietnam War
Main articles: Vietnam War,
North Vietnam,
South Vietnam
The
Communist-held
Democratic Republic of Vietnam was opposed by the
US-supported
Republic of Vietnam. Disagreements soon emerged over the organizing of elections and reunification, and the U.S. began increasing its contribution of military advisers. U.S. forces were soon embroiled in a
guerrilla war with the
NLF, the insurgents who were indigenous to South Vietnam. North Vietnamese forces unsuccessfully attempted to overrun the South during the 1968
Tet Offensive and the war soon spread into neighboring Laos and Cambodia, both of which the United States bombed.
With its own casualties mounting, the U.S. began transferring combat roles to the South Vietnamese military in a process the U.S. called
Vietnamization. The effort had mixed results. The
Paris Peace Accords of
January 27,
1973, formally recognized the sovereignty of both sides. Under the terms of the accords all American combat troops were withdrawn by
March 29,
1973. Limited fighting continued, but all major fighting ended until the North once again sent troops to the South on
April 30,
1975, following the collapse of the South Vietnamese government. South Vietnam briefly became the
Republic of South Vietnam, under military occupation by North Vietnam, before being officially integrated with the North under communist rule as the ''Socialist Republic of Vietnam'' on
July 2 1976.
Postwar
Upon taking control, the Vietnamese communists banned all other political parties, arrested public servants and military personnel of the Republic of Vietnam and sent them to
reeducation camps. The government also embarked on a mass campaign of
collectivization of farms and factories. Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow and serious humanitarian and economic problems confronted the communist regime. Millions of people
fled the country in crudely-built boats, creating an international humanitarian crisis
[2][3]. In 1978, the Vietnamese Army invaded Cambodia (sparking the
Cambodian-Vietnamese War) to remove the
Khmer Rouge from power. This action worsened relations with China, which launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam (the
Sino-Vietnamese War) in 1979. This conflict caused Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid.
Äổi Má»›i (Renovation)
In a historic shift in
1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam implemented
free-market reforms known as
Äổi Má»›i (''Renovation''). With the authority of the state remaining unchallenged, private ownership of farms and companies, deregulation and foreign investment were encouraged. The
economy of Vietnam has achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction and housing, exports, and foreign investment. It is now one of the fastest growing economies in the world. See Economy section for more detail.
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of Vietnam
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a
single-party state. A new
state constitution was approved in
April 1992, replacing the 1975 version. The central role of the Communist Party was reasserted in all organs of government, politics and society. Only political organizations affiliated with or endorsed by the Communist Party are permitted to contest elections. These include the
Vietnamese Fatherland Front, workers and trade unionist parties. Although the state remains officially committed to
socialism as its defining creed, the ideology's importance has substantially diminished since the 1990s. The
President of Vietnam is the titular
head of state and the nominal
commander in chief of the
military of Vietnam, chairing the Council on National Defense and Security. The
Prime Minister of Vietnam is the
head of government, presiding over a
council of ministers composed of 3 deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions.
The
National Assembly of Vietnam is the
unicameral legislature of the government, composed of 498 members. It is superior to both the executive and judicial branches. All members of the council of ministers are derived from the National Assembly. The
Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, which is the highest
court of appeal in the nation, is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the
provincial municipal courts and the
local courts.
Military courts are also a powerful branch of the judiciary with special jurisdiction in matters of national security. All organs of Vietnam's government are controlled by the Communist Party. Most government appointees are members of the party. The General Secretary of the Communist Party is perhaps one of the most important political leaders in the nation, controlling the party's national organization and state appointments, as well as setting policy.
The
Vietnam People's Army is the official name for the three military services of Vietnam, which is organized along the lines of China's
People's Liberation Army. The VPA is further subdivided into the Vietnamese People's Ground Forces (including Strategic Rear Forces and Border Defense Forces), the
Vietnam People's Navy, the
Vietnam People's Air Force and the
coast guard. Through Vietnam's recent history, the VPA has actively been involved in Vietnam's workforce to develop the economy of Vietnam, in order to coordinate national defense and the economy. The VPA is involved in such areas as industry, agriculture, forestry, fishery and telecommunications. The total strength of the VPA is close to 500,000 soldiers. The government also organizes and maintains provincial militias and police forces. The role of the military in public life has steadily weakened since the 1980s.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Vietnam
The capital of Vietnam is
Hanoi (it had served as the capital of
French Indochina and North Vietnam), and the largest and most populous city is
Ho Chi Minh City (formerly known as
Saigon). Vietnam is subdivided into
59 provinces and 5 province-level cities, which are further subdivided into
districts and
municipalities. Provincial governments are expected to be subordinate to the central government. Often, the Vietnamese government groups the various provinces into eight regions:
Northwest,
Northeast,
Red River Delta,
North Central Coast,
South Central Coast,
Central Highland,
Southeast,
Mekong River Delta.
Geography and climate
Main articles: Geography of Vietnam
Vietnam extends approximately 331,688 km² (128,066
sq mi) in area. The area of the country running along its international boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883
mi). The topography consists of hills and densely forested mountains, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the area, with smaller hills accounting for 40% and tropical forests 42%. The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the
Red River Delta.
Phan Xi Păng, located in
LÃ o Cai province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam at 3,143 m (10,312
ft). The south is divided into coastal lowlands,
Annamite Chain peaks, extensive forests, and poor soil. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land.
The delta of the Red River (also known as the Sông Hồng), a flat, triangular region of 3,000 square kilometers, is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in by the enormous alluvial deposits of the rivers over a period of millennia, and it advances one hundred meters into the Gulf annually. The Mekong delta, covering about 40,000 square kilometers, is a low-level plain not more than three meters above sea level at any point and criss-crossed by a maze of canals and rivers. So much sediment is carried by the Mekong's various branches and tributaries that the delta advances sixty to eighty meters into the sea every year.
Vietnam has a tropical monsoon climate, with humidity averaging 84% throughout the year. However, because of differences in latitude and the marked variety of topographical relief, the climate tends to vary considerably from place to place. During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the China coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture; consequently the winter season in most parts of the country is dry only by comparison with the rainy or summer season. The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains and plateaus.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Vietnam
Vietnamese cash: 500 000
VND
The Vietnam War destroyed much of the economy of Vietnam. Upon taking power, the Government created a
planned economy for the nation.
Collectivization of farms, factories and economic capital was implemented, and millions of people were put to work in government programs. For many decades, Vietnam's economy was plagued with inefficiency and corruption in state programs, poor quality and underproduction and restrictions on economic activities and trade. It also suffered from the trade embargo from the United States and most of Europe after the Vietnam War. Subsequently, the trade partners of the Communist blocs began to erode. In
1986, the Sixth Party Congress introduced significant economic reforms with
market economy elements as part of a broad economic reform package called "
đổi mới" (''Renovation''). Private ownership was encouraged in industries, commerce and agriculture. Vietnam achieved around 8% annual
GDP growth from 1990 to 1997 and continued at around 7% from 2000 to
2005, making it the world's second-fastest growing economy. Simultaneously,
foreign investment grew threefold and
domestic savings quintupled. Manufacturing,
information technology and high-tech industries form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Vietnam is a relative new-comer to the oil business, but today it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with output of 400,000 barrels per day. Vietnam is one of Asia's most open economies: two-way trade is around 160% of GDP, more than twice the ratio for China and over four times India's.
Vietnam is still a relatively poor country with GDP of US$280.2 billion at purchasing power parity (est.,
2006, source: Economist Intelligence unit). This translates to ~US$3,300 per capita (US$726 at market exchange rate). Inflation rate was estimated at 7.5% per year in 2006. The spending power of the public has noticeably increased.
Deep poverty, defined as a percent of the population living under $1 per day, has declined significantly and is now smaller than that of China, India, and the Philippines.
As a result of several
land reform measures, Vietnam is now the largest producer of
cashew nuts with a one-third global share and second largest
rice exporter in the world after
Thailand. Vietnam has the highest percent of land use for permanent crops, 6.93%, of any nation in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Besides rice, key exports are
coffee,
tea,
rubber, and fishery products. However, agriculture's share of economic output has declined, falling as a share of GDP from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006, as production in other sectors of the economy has risen. According to the CIA World Fact Book, the unemployment rate in Vietnam is one of the lowest in the world at 2%, trailing behind only
Azerbaijan,
Cuba,
Iceland,
Andorra and
Liechtenstein. Among other steps taken in the process of transitioning to a market economy, Vietnam in July 2006 updated its intellectual property legislation to comply with
TRIPS. Vietnam was accepted into the
WTO on November 7, 2006. Vietnam's chief trading partners include Japan,
Australia, ASEAN countries, the U.S. and Western European countries.
Transport
Hai Van Pass.
The modern transport network of Vietnam was originally developed under French rule for the purpose of raw materials harvesting, and reconstructed and extensively modernized following the Vietnam War. The road system is the most popular form of transportation in the country. Vietnam’s road system includes national roads administered by the central level; provincial roads managed by the provincial level; district roads managed by the district level; urban roads managed by cities and towns; and commune roads managed by the commune level.
Bicycles, motor scooters and motorcycles remain the most popular forms of road transport in Vietnam's cities, towns, and villages. Public bus operated by private companies is the main long distance travel means by many people. Traffic congestion is a serious problem in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City as the cities' roads struggle to cope with the booming numbers of automobiles. There are also more than 17,000 kilometers of navigable
waterways, which play a significant role in rural life owing to the extensive network of rivers in Vietnam.
The nation has seven developed ports and harbors at
Cam Ranh,
Da Nang,
Hai Phong,
Ho Chi Minh City,
Hong Gai,
Qui Nhon, and
Nha Trang.
Demography
Main articles: Demography of Vietnam
Population
Main articles: Ethnic groups in Vietnam
Recent census estimates the population of Vietnam at beyond 84 million.
Vietnamese people, also called "Viet" or "Kinh", account for 86.2 percent of the population. Their population is concentrated in the
alluvial deltas and coastal plains of the country. A homogeneous social and ethnic majority group, the Kinh exert political and economic control. There are more than 54 ethnic minorities throughout the country, but the Kinh are purveyors of the dominant culture. Most ethnic minorities, such as the
Muong, a closely related ethnic of the Kinh, are found mostly in the highlands covering two-thirds of the territory . The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and
Khmer Krom are mainly lowlanders. The largest ethnic minority groups include the Hmong, Dao, Tay, Thai, Nung.
Languages
Main articles: Vietnamese language
According to official figures, 86.2% of the population speak
Vietnamese as a native language. In its early history, Vietnamese writing used
Chinese characters. In the
13th century, the Vietnamese developed their own set of characters called
Chữ nôm. The celebrated epic
Äoạn trÆ°á»ng tân thanh (Truyện Kiá»u or The Tale of Kieu) by
Nguyễn Du was written in Chữ nôm. During the French colonial period,
Quốc ngữ, the romanized Vietnamese alphabet used for spoken Vietnamese, which was developed in 17th century by
Jesuit Alexandre De Rhodes and several other
Catholic missionaries, became popular and brought literacy to the masses.
Various other languages are spoken by several minority groups in Vietnam. The most common of these are
TÃ y,
MÆ°á»ng,
Khmer,
Chinese,
Nùng, and
H'Mông. The
French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is still spoken by some older Vietnamese as a second language, but is losing its popularity. There are however some French-language newspapers in the country as
Le courrier du Vietnam[1] and several French-language immersion programmes and French schools as the
école française Colette[2] in Ho Chi Minh City. Vietnam is also a full member of the
Francophonie.
Russian — and to a much lesser extent
German,
Czech, or
Polish — is sometimes known among those whose families had ties with the
Soviet bloc. In recent years,
English is becoming more popular as a second language. English study is obligatory in most schools.
Chinese and
Japanese have also become more popular.
Religions
Main articles: Religion in Vietnam
For much of Vietnamese history,
Mahayana Buddhism,
Taoism and
Confucianism have strongly influenced the religious and cultural life of the people. About 86% of Vietnamese identify Buddhism even though they do not practice on a regular basis. About 7% of the population is Roman
Catholic. Christianity was introduced by French colonists, and to a lesser extent during the presence of American forces. There is a substantial following of
Roman Catholicism and
Protestantism amongst the
Cao ÄÃ i, and
Hòa Hảo communities. The largest Protestant churches are the Evangelical Church of Vietnam and the Montagnard Evangelical Church.
Vietnam has great reservation towards Roman Catholicism. This mistrust originated during the French colonial time when several members of the Catholic church had collaborated with the French colonists as espionage agents to suppress the Vietnamese independence movement. Membership of
Sunni and
Bashi Islam is usually accredited to the ethnic
Cham minority, but there are also a few ethnic Vietnamese adherents of Islam in the southwest. The communist government has been criticized for its religious violations.
The vast majority of Vietnamese people, regardless of their religious background (including
Catholic or Buddhist), practice
Ancestor Worship, although this may not be strictly considered a religion.
Education
Main articles: Education in Vietnam
Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges and universities. General education in Vietnam is imparted in 5 categories:
Kindergarten,
elementary schools,
middle schools,
high schools, and
college /
university. Courses are taught mainly in Vietnamese. A large number of public schools have been organized across cities, towns and villages with the purpose of raising the national literacy rate. There are a large number of specialist colleges, established to develop a diverse and skilled national workforce. A large number of Vietnam's most acclaimed universities are based in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Facing serious crises, Vietnam's education system is under a holistic reform launched by the government. In Vietnam, education from age 6 to 11 is free and mandatory. Education above these ages is costly, therefore many families can't afford to send their children to school.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Vietnam
The spoken and written language is Vietnamese.
The culture of Vietnam has been influenced by neighboring China. Due to Vietnam's long association with the south of
China, one characteristic of Vietnamese culture is financial duty. Education and self-betterment are highly valued. Historically, passing the imperial
Mandarin exams was the only means for Vietnamese people to socially advance themselves.
In the socialist era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and the cultural influences of socialist programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences were shunned and emphasis placed on appreciating and sharing the culture of communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China,
Cuba and others. Since the
1990s, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to Southeast Asian, European and American culture and media.
One of the most popular Vietnamese traditional garments is the "
Ão Dà i", worn often for special occasions such as weddings or festivals. White Ão dà i is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across Vietnam. Ão Dà i was once worn by both genders but today it is worn mainly by females, except for certain important traditional culture-related occasions where some men do wear it.
Vietnamese cuisine uses very little oil and many vegetables. The main dishes are often based on
rice,
soy sauce, and
fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy (
serrano peppers), sour (lime), nuoc mam(fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil.
Vietnamese music varies slightly in the three regions: Bắc or North, Trung or Central, and Nam or South. Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest and is traditionally more formal. Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese
opera troupe. Central classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies. Southern music exudes a lively
laissez-faire attitude.
''See also
Vietnamese art,
theatre,
dance, and
literature
Football (Soccer) is the most popular sport in Vietnam. Sports and games such as
badminton,
tennis,
ping pong, and
chess are also popular with large segments of the population.
Volleyball, especially women's volleyball, is watched by a fairly large number of Vietnamese. The (expatriate Vietnamese) community forms a prominent part of Vietnamese cultural life, introducing Western sports, films, music and other cultural activities in the nation.
See also ''
List of Vietnamese traditional games.''
Vietnam is home to a small film industry.
Among countless other traditional Vietnamese occasions, the
traditional Vietnamese wedding is one of the most important. Regardless of
westernization, many of the age-old customs in a Vietnamese wedding continue to be celebrated by both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often combining both western and eastern elements.
See also ''
List of festivals in Vietnam''
Media
Vietnam's media sector is controlled by the government to tow the official communist party line. The
Voice of Vietnam is the official state-run radio broadcasting services that cover the nation.
Vietnam Television is the national television broadcasting company. As Vietnam moved toward a free-market economy with its doi moi measures, the government has relied on the print media to keep the public informed about its policies. The measure has had the effect of almost doubling the numbers of
newspapers and magazines since 1996 . Vietnam is putting considerable effort into modernization and expansion of its telecommunication system, but its performance continues to lag behind that of its more modern neighbors.
Tourism in Vietnam
Vietnam's number of visitors for tourism and vacation has increased steadily over the past ten years. About 3.56 million international guests visited Vietnam in 2006, an increase of 3.7% from 2005. The country is investing capital into the coastal regions that are already popular for their beaches and boat tours. Hotel staff and tourism guides in these regions speak a good amount of English.
International rankings
See also
Sources and notes
1. http://coombs.anu.edu.au/%7Evern/van_kien/declar.html
2. The State of The World's Refugees 2000 - Chapter 4: Flight from Indochina United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees : Three million fled Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos combined; close to a million Vietnamese were helped by the UNHCR.
3. Boat people: A Refugee Crisis Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
References
★ Herring, George C''. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975'' (4th ed 2001), most widely used short history.
★ Jahn GC. 2006. The Dream is not yet over. In: P. Fredenburg P, Hill B, editors. Sharing rice for peace and prosperity in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Victoria, (Australia): Sid Harta Publishers. p 237-240
★ Karrnow, Stanley. ''Vietnam: A History''. ''Penguin (Non-Classics)''; 2nd edition (
June 1,
1997). ISBN 0-14-026547-3
★ McMahon, Robert J. ''Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays'' (1995) textbook
★ Tucker, Spencer. ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War'' (1998) 3 vol. reference set; also one-volume abridgment (2001)
External links
;Government
★
Portal of the Government of Vietnam
★
Communist Party of Vietnam
★
National Assembly: the Vietnamese legislative body
★
General Statistics Office
★
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
;State-run
★
Voice of Vietnam: State radio broadcaster
★
Vietnam Television: State television broadcaster
★
Vietnam News Agency: Official state news agency
★
''Nhân Dân'' (''
The People)'': Official Communist Party newspaper
★
''Quân đội Nhân Dân'': Newspaper of the People's Army
★
Vietnam Net: Largest Vietnamese portal, run by the government-owned Vietnam Post and Telecommunication Corporation
★
''HÃ Ná»™i Má»›i'' (''New Hanoi''): run by the Hanoi Communist Party
★
''Sà i Gòn Giải Phóng'' (''Liberated Saigon''): run by the Ho Chi Minh City Communist Party
;Non state-run
While all media in Vietnam must be sponsored by a Communist Party organization and be registered with the government, the following media sources have less government control than others.
★
VnExpress: Popular online newspaper
★
''Tuổi Trẻ'' (''Youth''): Daily newspaper with highest circulation, affiliated with the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Organization of Ho Chi Minh City
★
''Thanh Niên'' (''Youth''): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Vietnam National Youth Federation
★
''Lao Äá»™ng'' (''Labour''): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Vietnam General Confederation of Labour (the sole labour union in Vietnam)
★
''Tiá»n Phong'' (''Vanguard''): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth organization
★
Vietnam Economic Times - for foreign investors
;Overviews
★
BBC - Country profile: ''Vietnam''
★
CIA World Factbook - ''Vietnam''
★
Freedom House "Countries at the Crossroads" report - ''Vietnam'': information on government accountability, civil liberties, rule of law, and anticorruption efforts
★
VietNam Map
★
Encyclopaedia Britannica - ''Vietnam''
★
Open Directory Project - ''Vietnam'' directory category
★
US State Department - ''Vietnam'' includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
★
US Library of Congress - ''Country Study: Vietnam''
★
Information about Vietnam: from the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affair
★
Le Viêt Nam, aujourd'hui: News concerning Vietnam (English & French)
★
Business Anti-Corruption Portal Vietnam Country Profile
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