The 'Upanishads' (
Devanagari: उपनिषदà¥,
IAST: upaniá¹£ad) are regarded as part of the
Vedas and as such form part of the
Hindu scriptures. They primarily discuss
philosophy,
meditation, and the nature of
God; they form the core spiritual thought of
Vedantic Hinduism. Considered as
mystic or
spiritual contemplations of the
Vedas, their putative end and essence, the Upanishads are known as ''
VedÄnta'' ("the end/culmination of the Vedas").
The Upanishads do not belong to a particular period of
Sanskrit literature. The oldest, such as the
Brhadaranyaka and
Chandogya Upanishads, may date to the
Brahmana period (roughly the 8th century BC), while the youngest, depending on the canon used, may date to the medieval or early modern period.
Etymology
The
Sanskrit term '' literally means "sitting down beside".
[1]
Monier-Williams notes that "according to some the sitting down at the feet of another to listen to his words (and hence, secret knowledge given in this manner; but according to native authorities ''upanishad'' means 'setting at rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit..."
[2] It derives from ''upa-'' (near), ''ni-'' (down) and ''sad'' (to sit), i.e. referring to the "sitting down near" a spiritual teacher (
guru) in order to receive instruction in the
Guru-shishya tradition.
Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine".
A gloss of the term '' based on
Shankara's commentary on the
and
Upanishads equates it with ''Ä€tmavidyÄ'', that is "knowledge of the
Self", or ''BrahmavidyÄ'' "knowledge of Brahma".
Major Upanishads
Different Upanishads are affiliated with the four Vedas (
Rigveda,
Yajurveda,
Samaveda and
Atharvaveda). The Upanishads were transmitted orally by the Vedic schools
sakhas. The longest and oldest Upanishad are the
and the
respectively.
The language of the Upanishads is
Sanskrit, the oldest among them still classifying as late
Vedic Sanskrit. The oldest Upanishads, the
and the
are composed in prose. These early texts may date back to the 8th-7th centuries BC. Later followed a series of Upanishads composed in verse, such as the Īśa, , Katha, and ÅšvetÄÅ›vatara Upanishads.
In
1656, at the order of
Dara Shikoh, the Upanishads were translated from
Sanskrit into
Persian. From 1802 to 1804
Abraham-Hyacinthe Anquetil Du Perron published a Latin translation (2 vols.) from the Persian of the Oupnek'hat or Upanishada. It is a curious mixture of Latin, Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit.
These philosophical and meditative tracts form the backbone of Hindu thought. Of the early Upanishads, the Aitareya and belong to the
Rig Veda, Kena and ChÄndogya to the
Samaveda, and Taittirīya and to the
Yajurveda, and and to the
Atharvaveda.
[3] In addition, the , KathÄ, ÅšvetÄÅ›vatara are very important. Others also include and Maitreyi Upanishads as key.
Place in the Hindu canon
Scholars of the Vedic books consider the four Vedas as poetic
liturgy, collectively called ''
mantra'' or ''
samhitÄ-'', adoration and supplication to the deities of
Vedic religion, in parts already melded with
monist and
henotheist notions, and an overarching order (
Rta) that transcended even the gods.
The ''
BrÄhmana'' were a collection of ritual instructions, books detailing the priestly functions (which first were available to all men, and so concretized into strictly Brahmin privilege). These came after the Mantra.
Vedanta, is chiefly composed of ''
Ä€ranyakas'' and Upanishads. The Aranyakas ("of the forest") detail meditative yogic practices, contemplations of the mystic one and the manifold manifested principles. The Upanishad basically realized all the monist and universal mystical ideas that started in earlier Vedic hymns, and have exerted an influence unprecedented on the rest of
Hindu and
Indian philosophy.
The philosopher and commentator
Shankara (8th century) composed commentaries to eleven Upanishads. These
mukhya Upanishads are generally regarded as the oldest ones, spanning the late
Vedic and the
Mauryan periods.
By the 17th century, there was a large number of Upanishads: The
Muktika Upanishad (predates 1656) lists 108 Upanishads. The number of Upanishads translated into Persian by
Dara Shikoh (d. 1659) is 50. There are also counts that give a total number of Upanishads in excess of 108:
Max Müller (1879) is aware of 170, and there are other counts in excess of 200 or even 300. The category of Upanishads has remained somewhat permeable, with the later additions being highly sectarian, perhaps representing "one of the strategies used by sectarian movements to legitimate their own texts through granting them the nominal status of ''
Åšruti''."
[4]
Contents
The ''
Taittiriya Upanishad'' says this in the Ninth Chapter:
The Upanishads hold information on basic Hindu beliefs, including belief in a world soul, a universal spirit, Brahman, and an individual soul, Atman (Smith 10). In Sanskrit, the word Brahman has two genders (masculine, Brahmâ, the creator-god or Brahman, neuter, the Absolute). A variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of this one divine ground, Brahman (different from
Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both transcendent and immanent, the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be.
Shankara's exegesis of the Upanishads describes Brahman not as God in the monotheistic sense; he ascribes to it no limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being. Thus, Shankara's philosophy is named
advaita, "not two."
Dvaita philosophy is a very different interpretation. Founded by
Madhvacharya, this school holds that Brahman is ultimately a personal God,
Vishnu, or
Krishna (''brahmano hi pratisthaham'', ''I am the Foundation of Brahman''
Bhagavad Gita 14.27).
Vishishtadvaita is the third major school of Vedanta, and it has some aspects in common with the other two.
The sages of the Upanishad try to solve these mysteries and seek knowledge of a Reality beyond ordinary knowing. They also show a preoccupation with states of consciousness, and observed and analysed dreams as well as dreamless sleep.
Philosophy
Due to their mystical nature and intense philosophical bent that does away with all ritual and completely embraces principals of One Brahman and the inner Atman (Self), the Upanishads have a universal feel that has led to their explication in numerous manners, giving birth to the three schools of
Vedanta.
The Upanishads are summed up in one phrase ततॠतà¥à¤µà¤‚ असि "
Tat Tvam Asi" (That thou art) by the
Advaita Vedanta and they believe that in the end, the ultimate, formless, inconceivable Brahman is the same as our soul, Atman. We only have to realize it through discrimination.
The Upanishads also contain the first and most definitive explications of
aum as the divine word, the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence and contains multiple trinities of being and principles subsumed into its One Self.
The ''Isha'' says of the Self (Verses 6, 7 & 8 of
Isha Upanishad):
"''Aum Shanti Shanti Shanti''" This, too, is found first in the Upanishads, the call for tranquility, for divine stillness, for Peace everlasting.
Dara Shikoh, the
Muslim sufi, and son of
Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan, translated the Upanishads in
Persian in order to find in it elements of
monotheism that might pave the way for a common
mystical bond between
Islam and
Hinduism..
List of Upanishads
"Principal" Upanishads
The following is a list of the eleven "principal" (''
mukhya'') Upanishads that were commented upon
[2] by
Shankara, and that are accepted as shruti by all Hindus. They are listed with their associated Veda (
Rigveda (),
Samaveda (SV),
White Yajurveda (),
Black Yajurveda (KYV),
Atharvaveda (AV)).
# ()
# (ÅšYV)
#
(ÅšYV)
#
(KYV)
# (KYV)
# (SV)
#
(SV)
# (AV)
# (AV)
# (AV)
#(KYV)
The and Upanishads are sometimes added to extend the canon to 13. They are also the oldest Upanishads, likely all of them dating to before the
Common Era. From linguistic evidence, the oldest among them are likely the and ChÄndogya Upanishads, belonging to the late
Vedic Sanskrit period; the remaining ones are at the transition from Vedic to Classical Sanskrit.
Canon by Vedic Shakha
The older Upanishads are associated with Vedic Charanas (
Shakhas or schools). The Aitareya Upanishad with the Shakala shakha, the Upanishad with the Bashakala shakha; the Upanishad with the Kauthuma shakha, the Kena Upanishad, and the
Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, with the
Jaiminiya shakha; the Upanishad with the Caraka-Katha shakha, the and with the
Taittiriya shakha; the Upanishad with the Maitrayani shakha; the and Upanishads with the Vajasaneyi Madhyandina shakha, and the and Upanishads with the
Shaunaka shakha. Additionally, parts of earlier texts, of
Brahmanas or passages of the Vedas themselves, are sometimes considered Upanishads.
The Muktika canon
The following is a list of the 108 canonical Upanishads of the
Advaita school, according to the
Muktika Upanishad (number 108), 1:30-39 (which does not list the associated Veda). In this canon,
★ 10 Upanishads are associated with the
Rigveda and have the ShÄnti beginning ''.
★ 16 Upanishads are associated with the
Samaveda and have the ShÄnti beginning ''.
★ 19 Upanishads are associated with the
White Yajurveda and have the ShÄnti beginning ''.
★ 32 Upanishads are associated with the
Black Yajurveda and have the ShÄnti beginning ''.
★ 31 Upanishads are associated with the
Atharvaveda and have the ShÄnti beginning ''.
The first 10 are grouped as ''
mukhya'' "principal", and are identical to those listed above. 21 are grouped as
SÄmÄnya VedÄnta "common
Vedanta", 23 as
SannyÄsa, 9 as
ShÄkta, 13 as
Vaishnava, 14 as
Shaiva and 17 as
Yoga Upanishads.
#
, (ÅšYV, Mukhya) "The Inner Ruler"
#
(SV, Mukhya) "Who moves the world?"
#
(KYV, Mukhya) "Death as Teacher"
#
, (AV, Mukhya) "The Breath of Life"
#
(AV, Mukhya) "Two modes of Knowing"
# (AV, Mukhya) "Consciousness and its phases"
#
(KYV, Mukhya) "From Food to Joy"
#
, ( Mukhya) "The Microcosm of Man"
#
(SV, Mukhya) "Song and Sacrifice"
# (ÅšYV, Mukhya)
# (KYV, Sannyasa)
# (KYV, Shaiva)
[3]
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
#
(KYV, Sannyasa) "The Faces of God"
# (ÅšYV, Yoga)
# (SV, Sannyasa)
# (KYV, Sannyasa)
# (KYV, Vaishnava)
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (AV, Shaiva)
# (AV, Shaiva)
#
(SV, Sannyasa)
# (, Samanya)
# (AV, Shaiva)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (KYV, Shaiva)
# (SV, Sannyasa)
# (ÅšYV, Samanya)
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (ÅšYV, Samanya)
# (KYV, Samanya)
# (ÅšYV, Samanya)
# (KYV, Samanya)
# (SV, Samanya)
# (KYV, Sannyasa)
# (, Yoga)
[4]
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (, Samanya)
# () (AV, Sannyasa)
# (ÅšYV, Yoga)
# (AV, Shakta)
# (SV, Yoga)
# (, Sannyasa)
# (ÅšYV, Yoga)
# (KYV, Shaiva)
# (AV, Shaiva)
# () (KYV, Samanya)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (SV, Vaishnava)
# (, Samanya)
# (AV, Yoga)
# (ÅšYV, Samanya)
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
# (SV, Samanya)
# (KYV, Samanya)
# (KYV Yoga)
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
# (SV, Sannyasa)
# (AV, Sannyasa)
# () (, Shaiva)
# (SV, Vaishnava)
# (KYV, Samanya)
# (AV, Shakta)
# (AV, Samanya)
# (KYV, Samanya)
# (ÅšYV, Samanya)
# (SV, Sannyasa)
# (SV, Samanya)
# (AV, Samanya)
# (AV, Yoga)
# (AV, Sannyasa)
# (KYV, Sannyasa)
# (AV, Shakta)
# (AV, Shakta)
# (, Shakta)
# (KYV, Sannyasa)
# (AV, Shakta)
# (KYV, Shaiva)
# (KYV, Yoga)
# (AV, Shaiva)
# (SV, Shaiva)
# (AV, Shaiva)
# (SV, Yoga)
# (ÅšYV, Vaishnava)
# (AV, Yoga)
# (KYV, Shaiva)
# (KYV, Samanya)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
# (KYV, Sannyasa)
# (ÅšYV, Sannyasa)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
# (AV, Vaishnava)
#
() (KYV, Vaishnava)
# (SV, Shaiva)
# (, Shakta)
# (KYV, Shakta)
# (, Shakta)
# (ÅšYV, Samanya)
Notes
1. Arthur Anthony Macdonell. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. p. 53.
2. Monier-Williams. ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary''. p. 201. [1] Web version accessed 1 April 2007.
3. Associated Upanishad and Vedic book information taken from Radhakrishnan Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1.
4.
References
★ Edmonds, I.G. Hinduism. New York: Franklin Watts, 1979.
★
Eknath Easwaran, The Upanishads. Nilgiri Press, 1987.
★ Embree, Ainslie T., ed. The Hindu Tradition. New York: Random House, 1966.
★
★ Merrett, Frances, ed. The Hindu World. London: MacDonald and Co, 1985.
★ Pandit, Bansi. The Hindu Mind. Glen Ellyn, IL: B&V Enterprises, 1998.
★ Smith, Huston. The Illustrated World’s Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions. New York: Labrynth Publishing, 1995.
★ Wangu, Madhu Bazaz. Hinduism: World Religions. New York: Facts on File, 1991.
See also
★
Advaita Vedanta
★
Bhagavad Gita
★
Dvaita
★
Hinduism
★
Hindu philosophy
★
Vedanta
★
Vedas
★
Yoga
★
Arthur Schopenhauer
External links
Original text
★
Devanagari text in Wikisource
★
GRETIL
★
Sri Aurobindo, ''The Upanishads''
[5].
Sri Aurobindo Ashram,
Pondicherry. 1972.
Translations
★
The Upanishads Translated and Commentated by Swami Paramananda From the Original Sanskrit Text
★
11 principal Upanishads with translations
★
Upanishads at Sanskrit Documents Site
★
Translations of principal Upanishads at sankaracharya.org
★
English translations of major Upanishads.
★
Ishopanishad The complete text, with transliteration, word-for-word meanings, and commentary
★
Sri Aurobindo, ''The Upanishads''
[6].
Sri Aurobindo Ashram,
Pondicherry. 1972.
Related Links, selections, commentaries, summaries
★
Overview of 18 Upanisads; 108 main Upanisads
★
Vaishnava explanation of Upanisads, list of Vaishnava commentaries
★
The Upanishads (www.advaita-vedanta.org)
★
Upanishad translated by Max Muller from Sacred-Texts
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