Political distribution of the countries and autonomous subdivisions where a
Turkic language has official status.
The 'Turkic peoples' are a group of peoples residing in northern and central
Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the
Turkic family and who, to varying degrees, share certain
cultural and historical traits. The term ''Turkic'' represents a broad,
ethno-linguistic group of people and includes existing cultures such as the
Kazakhs,
Kyrgyz and
Turkish people, as well as historical societies such as the Seljuq and Timurid. All these peoples can be loosely referred to as "Turks". ''Turkish'', on the other hand, specifically represents the citizens of
Turkey and the Turkish ethnicity.
The term ''Turkic'' as a common reference to various Turkic-speaking people began its spread after the appearance of the
Turkic Kaganate in the 6th century CE, and did not gain a universal acceptance among some Turkic peoples until influenced by European nationalistic concepts of the 19th century CE. Prior to that, various Turkic-speaking people were known under different general ethnic names. The etymology of the base word ''Turk'' has a few competing generic explanations.
The family of
Turkic languages is a subdivision of the
Altaic language group and is one of the most geographically widespread in the world, being spoken in a vast region ranging from
Europe to
Siberia.
Geographical distribution
The Turkic linguistic family has many branches, and the total population of Turkic speakers worldwide is around 150 million. More than one third of these are ethnic
Turks of Turkey, dwelling predominantly in Turkey proper and formerly Ottoman-dominated areas of Eastern Europe and West Asia; as well as in Western Europe, Australia and the Americas as a result of immigration. The remainder of the Turkic peoples are concentrated in
Central Asia,
Russia, the
Caucasus, China, and northern and northwestern
Iran.
At present, there are six independent Turkic countries:
Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan,
Turkey, and
Uzbekistan. There are also several Turkic national subdivisions in the
Russian Federation including
Bashkortostan,
Tatarstan,
Chuvashia,
Khakassia,
Tuva,
Yakutia, the
Altai Republic, the
Altai Krai,
Kabardino-Balkaria, and
Karachayevo-Cherkessiya. Each of these subdivisions has its own flag, parliament, laws, and official state language (in addition to
Russian).
The
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China and the autonomous region of
Gagauzia, located within eastern
Moldova and bordering Ukraine to the north, are two major autonomous Turkic regions. The
Autonomous Republic of Crimea within Ukraine is a home of
Crimean Tatars. In addition, there are several Turkic-inhabited regions in
Iran,
Iraq,
Georgia,
Bulgaria,
Greece,
Macedonia,
Tajikistan,
Afghanistan, and western
Mongolia.
Migrations
According to early historians the Turkic people and the related groups migrated west towards
Eastern Europe,
Persia and
Anatolia.
[1] Turks or Turkish people are among those who migrated early from what is known today as
Mongolia to modern Turkey but also among the late-arrival peoples; they also participated in the Crusades.
[2] After many battles they established their own state and later created the Ottoman Empire; their tactics were all-out sieges and invasions.
[3]
Turkic roots
The first historical text to mention the Turks was from the standpoint of the Chinese, who mentioned trade of Turk tribes with the
Sogdians along the
Silk Road [ Sogdian Trade, ''Encyclopedia Iranica'', Columbia University (retrieved 15 June 2007) ]. The
Xiongnu mentioned in
Han Dynasty records may have been
Proto-Turkic speakers.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Another viewpoint is that the Xiongnu language was
Samoyedic rather than Turkic.
[4]
[6]
The first recorded use of "Turk" as a political name is a sixth-century reference to the word now pronounced in Modern Chinese as
Tujue. It is believed that some Turkic tribes, such as
Khazars and
Pechenegs, probably lived as nomads for many years before establishing a political state (
Göktürk empire).
Turkic peoples originally used their own alphabets, like Orkhon and Yenisey runiform, and later the
Uyghur alphabet. The oldest inscription was found near the Issyk river in
Kazakhstan and has been dated to 500 BC. The traditional national and cultural symbols of the Turkic peoples include the
star and crescent, used as a symbol of Turks since pre-Islamic times when they practised
Shamanism; wolves, a part of Turkic mythology and tradition; as well as the color blue, iron, and fire.
In the age of nationalism, Turkic speakers were among the first
Muslim peoples to take up Western ideas of
liberalism and
secular ideologies.
Pan-Turkism first sprang up at the end of the 19th century in the
Russian Empire and was advanced by leading Turkic intellectuals like
Crimean Tatar İsmail Gaspıralı, Azerbaijan philosophers like
Mirza Fatali Akhundov and
Tatar Yusuf Akçura, as a reaction to
Panslavist and
Russification policies of the Russian Empire. The first fully democratic and secular republics in the Islamic world were Turkic: the ill-fated
Idel-Ural State established in 1917, the
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 (both annexed and absorbed by the
Soviet Union), and in 1923
Republic of Turkey. In 1991 Azerbaijan became an independent Azerbaijan Republic.
Nomenclature
In modern Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples": the term ''Türk'' corresponds specifically to the
people of Turkey and
culture, while the term ''Türki'' refers generally to modern Turkic peoples and cultures.
Some claim that this distinction is an artificial one, and one not made by speakers of Turkic languages elsewhere. It is sometimes claimed further that much of the separation is the result of
Stalinism, and that prior to the founding of the
Soviet Union, the term "Turkish" had been used to describe all Turkic peoples as part of a greater family. Others counter that this argument is without basis, and only used to support the racial theories of
Pan-Turkism, pointing out that the differences among the separate governmental administrations, as well as cultural, religious, historical, and even racial differences, are too great to speak of any political unity. However, those ideas do not refute the claim that "Turkish" is a term for all Turkic peoples. For one thing, the claim that "Turkish" had been used to represent Turkic peoples at large is not necessarily used to support racist ideas. It is also not a political claim and does not necessarily belong to people who want political union of Turks. It is basically a historical claim that is mostly supported by Turkish nationalists.
The first known mention of the term ''Turk'' applied to a Turkic group was in reference to the
Göktürks in the sixth century. A letter by the
Chinese Emperor written to a Göktürk Khan named
Ishbara in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan." The
Orhun inscriptions (AD 735) use the terms ''Turk'' and ''Turuk''.
Previous use of similar terms are of unknown significance, although some strongly feel that they are evidence of the historical continuity of the term and the people as a linguistic unit since early times. This includes a Chinese record of 1328 BC referring to a neighbouring people as ''Tu-Kiu''.
Traditions about nomenclature
Map from Kashgari's ''Diwan'', showing the distribution of Turkic tribes.
In the ancient Zoroastrian texts of the
Avesta, one of the grandsons of
Yima (comparable to Noah as the sole survivor of a catastrophe that depopulated the Earth) is named "Tur" or "Tura"—the supposed ancestor of the so-called "
Turanian" peoples, a term used in Ancient Iran for all the inhabitants of Central Asia. The term "Turanian" is sometimes said to be derived from Old-Iranian word ''tork'' or ''tark'' (today:târik), meaning 'dark' (in reference to how the West Iranians saw the lands to their north as a mysterious "land of darkness"); however, claims that there is any etymological connection to the word "Turk" are hotly disputed among various historians. This traditional Persian genealogy has been confused by some with the late 16th century
Mughal (Indian) work Akbarnama by Abul-Fazel, where he recounts certain Islamic traditions making "Turk" the oldest son of Japheth and grandson of Noah; also, in the 19th century, it was common in Christian circles to equate the ancestor of the Turks with Togarmah, grandson of Japheth in Genesis 10.
A traditional
Kyrgyz Manaschi performing part of the Manas epic poem at a yurt camp in Karakol.
According to
Mahmud of Kashgar, an 11th century Turkic scholar, and various other traditional Islamic scholars and historians, the name "Turk" stems from Tur, one of the sons of Japheth, and comes from the same lineage as Gomer (Cimmerians) and Ashkenaz (Scythians, Ishkuz) who, according to tradition, were some of the earliest Turks (most modern scholars believe these tribes to have been Iranian). A similar name, Dur, appears in mediaeval
Hungarian legend as a legendary chieftain of the Caucasian
Alans (Arran, Iron) whose daughters supposedly bred with the Magyar ancestors Magor and Hunor.
In the ''Divan ul-Lughat at-Turk'' (Turkic dictionary) of Mahmud of Kashgar, the eponymous hero of the Turks, Alp Er Tunga, is identified with the character
Afrasiab ("Frangasyan" in the
Avesta) in Persian literature. Alp Er Tunga is a symbolic figure in Turkic tradition; the Göktürks of the sixth century carried on the tradition of Alp Er Tunga and they too believed themselves to be descendants of a wolf. According to the
Shahnameh written by the Persian author
Ferdowsi, Afrasiyab was hunted down and killed in Azerbaijan .
History
Main articles: History of the Turkic peoples
It is generally believed that the first Turkic people were native to a region extending from the
Caspian Sea in the west across
Central Asia-Turkestan to
Mongolia in the east, Siberia-Altai in the north, and
Kashmir in the south. Some scholars contend that the
Huns were one of the earlier Turkic tribes, while others support either a
Mongolic or
Finno-Ugric origin for the Huns.
[5] The main migration of Turks, who were among the ancient inhabitants of Turkestan, occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of
Asia and into
Europe and the
Middle East.
[6]
The precise date of the initial expansion from the early homeland remains unknown. The first state known as "Turk", giving its name to many states and peoples afterwards, was that of the
Göktürks (''gog'' = "blue" or "celestial") in the sixth century AD. The head of the ''Asena'' clan led his people from Li-jien (modern Zhelai Zhai) to the
Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection from China. His tribe were famed metal smiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥(tūjué). A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan and set about establishing their Gök Empire.
Later Turkic peoples include the
Karluks (mainly 8th century),
Uyghurs,
Kyrgyz,
Oghuz (or Ğuz) Turks, and
Turkmens. As these peoples were founding states in the area between
Mongolia and
Transoxiana, they came into contact with Muslims, and most gradually adopted
Islam. However, there were also (and still are) small groups of Turkic people belonging to other religions, including
Christians,
Jews (
Khazars),
Buddhists, and
Zoroastrians.
Turkic soldiers in the army of the
Abbasid caliphs emerged as the de facto rulers of most of the Muslim Middle East (apart from
Syria and
Egypt), particularly after the 10th century. The Oghuz and other tribes captured and dominated various countries under the leadership of the
Seljuk dynasty and eventually captured the territories of the Abbasid dynasty and the
Byzantine Empire.
Meanwhile, the Kyrgyz and Uyghurs were struggling with one another and with the Chinese Empire. The Kyrgyz people ultimately settled in the region now referred to as
Kyrgyzstan. The
Tatar peoples conquered the
Volga Bulgars in what is today
Tatarstan, following the westward sweep of the Mongols under
Genghis Khan in the 13th century. The Bulgars were thus mistakenly called Tatars by the Russians. Native Tatars live only in Asia; European "Tatars" are in fact Bulgars. Other Bulgars settled in Europe in the 7th-8th centuries, and were assimilated into the Slavic population after adopting what eventually became the Slavic
Bulgarian language. Everywhere, Turkic groups mixed with the local populations to varying degrees.
As the
Seljuk Empire declined following the Mongol invasion, the
Ottoman Empire emerged as the new important Turkic state, that came to dominate not only the Middle East, but even southeastern Europe, parts of southwestern Russia, and northern Africa.
The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of maladministration, repeated wars with
Russia and
Austro-Hungary, and the emergence of nationalist movements in the
Balkans, and it finally gave way after
World War I to the present-day republic of
Turkey.
Language
Main articles: Turkic languages
The Turkic language family is often considered to belong to the Altaic language group. The various Turkic languages are usually considered in geographical groupings, since high mobility and intermixing of Turkic peoples in history makes an exact classification extremely difficult:
Oghuz (or Southwestern) languages,
Kypchak (or Northwestern) languages, Eastern languages (like
Uygur) and Northern languages (like
Altay and
Yakut) and divergent languages like
Chuvash.
Religion
Main articles: Islam in Azerbaijan,
Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan,
Islam in Uzbekistan,
Islam in Turkmenistan,
Islam in Turkey,
Islam in Cyprus,
Islam in Kazakhstan
A shaman doctor of
Kyzyl.
Various pre-Islamic Turkic civilizations of the sixth century were
Shamanist and
Tengriist. The Shamanist religion is based on spiritual and natural elements of earth. Tengriism involves belief in
Tengri as the god who ruled over the skies. These civilizations also followed the Zoroastrian religion, especially in
Azerbaijan, as well as Buddhism and Judaism.
Today, most Turks are
Sunni Muslims. These include the majority of Balkan Turks, Balkars, Bashkorts, Crimean Tatars, Karachay, Kazaks, Kumuk, Kyrgyz, Nogay, Tatars (Kazan Tatars), Turkmens, Turks of Turkey, Uygurs, Yellow (Sari) Uygurs, and Uzbeks. The Azerbaijanis of the
Republic of Azerbaijan and
Iranian Azerbaijan are the only major Turkic-speaking people that adhere to the
Shia sect of Islam, while there have been many conversions to Sunni Islam as of late. The
Qashqay nomads and
Khorasani Turks as well as various Turkic tribes spread across Iran are also Shia Muslims. The
Alevis of Turkey are the largest religious minority in the country. Even though it is claimed that they believe in a doctrine of Islam that is closely related to that of the Shia school of thought, Shias regard Alevis as heretics.
The major Christian-Turkic peoples are the
Chuvash of
Chuvashia and the
Gagauz (Gökoğuz) of
Moldova. Many
Karaim Turks of eastern Europe are
Jewish, and there are Turks of Jewish backgrounds who live in major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and Baku. In the Siberian region, the Altay, some
Tuvan and
Hakas are Tengriist, having kept the original religion of Turkic peoples. The Yakuts of Yakutia in northeastern Siberia are traditionally Shamanists, yet many have converted to Christianity. The
Sari Uygurs (Yellow Uygurs) of western China, as well as the Tuvans of Russia are the only remaining Buddhist Turkic peoples. In addition, there are small scattered populations of Turks belonging to other religions such as the
Bahá'í Faith and Zoroastrianism.
Even though many Turkic peoples became
Muslims under the influence of
Sufis, often of Shi'a persuasion, most Turkic people today are
Sunni Muslims—although a significant number in Turkey are
Alevis. Alevi Turks, who were once primarily dwelling in eastern Anatolia, are today concentrated in major urban centers in western Turkey with the increased urbanism.
A diagram of the Tengriist World view on a Shaman's Drum. The ''World-tree'' is growing in the centre and connecting the three Worlds
Underworld, ''Middleworld'' and ''Upperworld''
The traditional religion of the
Chuvash of Russia, while contanining many ancient Turkic concepts, also shares some elements with
Zoroastrism,
Khazar Judaism, and Islam. The Chuvash religious calendar cycle and the agrarian cult that it was based on combined ancestor worship and worship of earth, water and vegetation. The Chuvash converted to
Eastern Orthodox Christianity for the most part in the second half of the 19th century. As a result, festivals and rites were made to coincide with Orthodox feasts, and Christian rites replaced their traditional counterparts. A minority of the Chuvash still profess their traditional faith
[7].
The
Gagauz people of
Moldova are largely Christians.
There are Turkic-speaking groups of Jews, such as the
Crimean Karaites.
Some Turkic peoples (particularly in the Russian autonomous regions and republics of
Altay,
Khakassia, and
Tuva) are largely Tengriists. Tengriism was the predominant religion of the different Turkic branches prior to the 8th century, when the majority accepted Islam.
There are also a few Buddhist (e.g.
Tuvans), Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í Turkic peoples today.
Remark: The name
Tengri has been changed to ''
Tanrı'' in modern Turkish (as spoken in
Turkey), the same as in
Azeri, literally meaning "God" in English. However, traditionally, God is referred to as ''Allah'' in most daily usage. The word ''tengri / tanrı'' is still in use by citizens of
Azerbaijan and
Turkey, where Islam is the dominant religion.
Geographical distribution and ethnic division
The distribution of peoples of Turkic cultural background ranges from
Siberia, where the
Yakuts reside, across Central Asia, to Eastern Europe. Presently, the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, and
Azerbaijan, in addition to
Turkey. Additionally, Turkic peoples are found within
Crimea, the
Xinjiang region of western
China, northern
Iraq,
Iran,
Israel,
Russia,
Afghanistan,
Cyprus, and the
Balkans:
Moldova,
Greece,
Bulgaria,
Romania, and former
Yugoslavia. A small number of Turkic people also live in
Vilnius, the capital of
Lithuania. There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from
Turkey) in
Germany,
United States, and
Australia, largely because of migrations during the 20th century.
Turkmen Girl
Sattar Khan (1868-1914) was a major revolutionary figure in the late
Qajar period in Iran.
Kazan Tatars, 1885 photo
An exact line between the different Turkic peoples cannot easily be drawn. The following is a non-comprehensive list of the major groups:
★
Altays (Oirots)
★
Azerbaijanis
★
Balkars (along with Karachays, speakers of the
Karachay-Balkar language)
★
Bashkirs
★
Chulyms
★
Chuvashs
★
Crimean Tatars
★
Dolgans
★
Gagauz
★
Iraqi Turkmen
★
Karachays (along with
Balkars, speakers of the
Karachay-Balkar language)
★
Crimean Karaites
★
Karakalpaks
★
Karapapak
★
Kazakhs
★
Khakas
★
Khazars
★
Krymchaks (speak a modified form of Crimean Tatar)
★
Kumyks
★
Kyrgyz
★
Meskhetian Turks
★
Mongols
★
Nogais
★
Qashqai
★
Salar
★
Tatars
★
★
Volga Tatars (or
Kazan Tatars, or simply Tatars)
★
★
★
Nağaybäklär
★
★
★
Baltic Tatars
★
★
Siberian Tatars
★
★
Lipka Tatars
★
Tofalars
★
Turkmens
★
Turks of Turkey (see also
Ottoman Turks or
Seljuk Turk)
★
★
Turkish Cypriots
★
Tuvans
★
Urums
★
Uyghur
★
Uzbeks
★
Yakuts
★
Yörüks
Some divide the above into six branches: the
Oghuz Turks,
Kipchak,
Karluk,
Siberian,
Chuvash, and
Sakha/Yakut branches. The Oghuz have been termed Western Turks, while the remaining five, in such a classificatory scheme, are called Eastern Turks.
One of the major difficulties perceived by many who try to classify the various Turkic languages and dialects is the impact
Soviet and particularly
Stalinist nationality policies—the creation of new national demarcations, suppression of languages and writing scripts, and mass deportations—had on the ethnic mix in previously multicultural regions like
Khwarezm, the
Fergana Valley, and
Caucasia. Many of the above-mentioned classifications are therefore by no means universally accepted, either in detail or in general. Another aspect often debated is the influence of
Pan-Turkism, and the emerging
nationalism in the newly independent Central Asian republics, on the perception of ethnic divisions.
Physical appearance
Uyghur girl
Some historians consider "Turkic" as a linguistic categorization rather than a strictly ethnic characterization. This is not surprising, since Turkic peoples often differ greatly from one another in physical appearance, reflecting the abundant migrations, conquests, and settlements across Eurasia. Therefore, the already considerable problems involved in any racial classification are made much more difficult in the case of the Turks.
The Turkic peoples possess physical features ranging from
Caucasoid race to Northern
Mongoloid race.
In western Turkic lands, such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, a great many people look "European" and "Mediterranean". In Turkey, people with light-coloured eyes such as blue, green, hazel, or gray and blond or brown hair are common. Caucasoid and Mongoloid facial structure is common among some Central Asian Turkic groups, such as
Kazakhs,
Uzbeks, and
Turkmen.
There has been much debate about the
racial nature of the original Turkic-speaking ancestors, with some in the past presuming a "Ural-Altaic race" with Caucasoid features at one end of the spectrum and Mongoloid features at the other. It is, however, widely accepted that Turkic linguistic roots are
Altaic, i.e. originating in present-day Russia, West China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan, and it may be that they have more relation to Uralic peoples than previously thought. In recent times, linguists have tended to separate the old
Ural-Altaic language group in two. Turkic languages now sit alongside
Altaic and
Tungusic, and
Finnish and
Hungarian sitting alongside
Uralic.
Turkic identity exists on two levels. On one, it is a race of Eurasian peoples whose mother tongue is a Turkic language and practises a Turkic culture. On another, it is like an ocean current, spreading and mingling with far-flung waters, and giving rise to a broad-shared history, language, and cultural values transcending genes and racial categorization.
Pan-Turkism
Main articles: Pan-Turkism
Some refer to the Turkic countries, regions and peoples as part of the Turkish world. Others are worried that this is a result and example of Pan-Turkism, claimed to encourage hegemonial or even imperialistic aims of modern-day Turkey. However, this may not be the case, as many claim that Pan-Turkism is supported widely outside Turkey. Turkey's official stance as a nation state is not to support Pan-Turkism - though it does not reject it either.
Opponents point to the negative elements that can become involved in any kind of nationalism (whether Turkic or otherwise), the role of pan-Turkic movements in the revolutionary wars in
Russia and the
Armenian Genocide, and the cultural, religious, and political diversity among the many Turkic peoples and ethnic groups, and feel that a movement to greater pan-Turkic unity would have a negative influence on the region.
[7]
Gallery
References
1. Josh Burk, "The Middle East and Its Origins" p.45"
2. Moses Parkson, "Ottoman Empire and its past life" p.98
3. Johnson, Mark "Turkic roots its origins" p.43
4. G. Pulleyblank, The Consonantal System of Old Chinese: Part II, Asia Major n.s. 9 (1963) 206—65
5. The Origins of the Huns
6. Carter V. Findley, The Turks in World History, (Oxford University Press, October 2004) ISBN 0-19-517726-6
7. In God's Name: Genocide and Religion in the Twentieth Century - Page 24 by Omer Bartov, Phyllis Mack
★ Golden, Peter B. "''Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic Peoples''". (2006) In: ''Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World''. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. Pp. 136-157. ISBN-13: ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN-10: ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
Further reading
★ Chavannes, Édouard (1900): ''Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux.'' Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969.
★ Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. ''The Turks in World History''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516770-8; 0-19-517726-6 (pbk.)
★ Charles Warren Hostler, ''The Turks of Central Asia'', (Greenwood Press, November 1993), ISBN 0-275-93931-6
★ H.B. Paksoy ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule (Hartford: AACAR, 1989)
★ http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/
★ Peter B. Golden, ''An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East'', (Otto Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden) 1992) ISBN 3-447-03274-X
★ Colin Heywood, ''The Turks (The Peoples of Europe)'', (Blackwell 2005), ISBN 978-0631158974
See also
★
Pan-Turanism
★
Pan-Turkism
★
Chigils Turks
★
Shatuo Turks
★
Turkic European
★
Turkic languages
★
Turkic states and empires
★
Turko-Iranian
★
Turkology
External links
★
Turkic Cultures and Children's Festival, Turkic Fest
★
Encyclopedia Britanica 1911 Edition
★
turkicworld
★
Ethnographic maps
★
International Turcology and Turkish History Research Symposium
★
Istanbul Kültür University
★
Examples of traditional Turkish and Ottoman Clothing
★
Türkçekent Orientaal's links for Turkish Language Learning
★
Türkçestan Orientaal's links to Turkic languages
★
Ural-Altaic-Sumerian Etymological Dictionary
★
Crimean Tatar Internet Resources
★
Crimean Tatar Web Site
★
Kemal's Crimean Tatar Web Site with Crimean Tatar Language Resources
★
Murad Adji's site Contains books in English
'New DNA Results'
★
"Probable ancestors of Hungarian ethnic groups: an admixture analysis"C. R. GUGLIELMINO1, A. DE SILVESTRI2 and J. BERES
★
MtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in Hungary: inferences from the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Uralic influences on the modern Hungarian gene pool
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