TRIREME

'Trireme' (Greek 'Τριήρεις' pl. ('Τριήρης' sing.)) refers to a class of warships used by the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans. In English, no differentiation is made between the Greek ''triērēs'' and the Latin ''triremes''. This is sometimes a source of confusion, as in other languages these terms refer to different styles of ships.
The early type had three rows of oars on each side, manned with one man per oar. They originated with the Phoenicians and are best known from the fleets of Ancient Greece. The early trireme was a development of the ''penteconter'', an ancient warship with a single row of 25 oars on each side, and of the ''bireme'' (), a warship with two banks of oars. The trireme's staggered seating permitted three benches per vertical section with an oarsman on each. The outrigger above the gunwale, projecting laterally beyond it, kept the third row of oars on deck out of the way of the first two under deck. Early triremes were the dominant warship in the Mediterranean from the 7th to the 4th century BC.
The Greek/Phoenician trireme was the mainstay of most navies until the arrival of the quinquiremes/penteres. Like the triremes, all rowers were now protected under deck and battle was mainly fought by marines.
Light Roman triremes supplanted the liburnians in the late Roman navy. They were like the early triremes a light type of warship, but with 150 rowers under deck instead of 170, with little armor, but significantly more marines and less structural support for ramming. Later it developed into the heavier medieval dromon.

Contents

History

Origin

Early use and development

Persian and Peloponnesian Wars

Construction

Dimensions

Propulsion

Crew

Tactics

Changes of engagement and construction

Reconstruction

Sources

References

External links

History

Origin

The exact origin of the trireme is uncertain and debated, as our evidence comes from literary sources and depictions in reliefs and pottery fragments, which are open to misinterpretations. Depictions of two-tiered ships (biremes), with or without the ''parexeiresia'' (the outrigger, see below), are common in 8th century vases and pottery fragments, and it is at the end of that century that the first references to three-tiered ships are found. According to Thucydides, the trireme was ''introduced to'' Greece by the Corinthians in the late 8th century BC, and that the Corinthian Ameinocles built four such ships for the Samians.^[1] Although this was interpreted by later writers, like Pliny and Diodorus, to mean that triremes were ''invented'' in Corinth,^[2], it is likely that the earliest three-tiered warships originated in Phoenicia. Fragments from an 8th century relief at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh depicting the fleets of Tyre and Sidon have been interpreted as depicting two- and three-level warships, fitted with rams. The 2nd century Christian scholar Clement of Alexandria, drawing on earlier works, explicitly attributes the invention of the trireme to the Sidonians.^[3]

Early use and development

Herodotus mentions that the Egyptian pharaoh Necho (610–595 BC) built triremes on the Nile, for service in the Mediterranean, and in the Red Sea, but this reference is disputed by modern historians, and attributed to a confusion, since "triēres" was by the 5th century used in the sense of "warship", regardless its type.^[4] The first definite reference to the use of triremes in naval combat dates to ca. 525 BC, when, according to Herodotus, the tyrant Polycrates of Samos was able to contribute 40 triremes to a Persian invasion of Egypt.^[5] Thucydides meanwhile clearly states that until the time of the Persian invasions, the majority of the Greek navies consisted of (probably two-tiered) penteconters and ''ploia makrá'' ("long ships").^[6]
In any case, by the early 5th century, the trireme was becoming the dominant warship type of the eastern Mediterranean, with minor differences between the "Greek" and "Phoenician" types, as literary references and depictions of the ships on coins make clear. The first large-scale naval battle where triremes participated was the Battle of Lade during the Ionian Revolt, where the combined fleets of the Greek Ionian cities were defeated by the Persian fleet, composed of squadrons from their Phoenician, Carian, Cypriot and Egyptian subjects.

Persian and Peloponnesian Wars

Partly as a result of Athenian support to the Ionian Greeks, the Persian Great King Darius started moving against metropolitan Greece. The Persian fleet roamed the Aegean Sea unopposed, but the first invasion force was defeated at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The second invasion, under Xerxes, included a massive land army and a large navy, which were to cooperate closely.
Athens was at that time embroiled in a conflict with the neighbouring island of Aegina, which possessed a formidable navy. In order to counter this, and possibly with an eye already at the mounting Persian preparations, in 482 BC the Athenian statesman Themistocles used his political skills and influence to persuade the Athenian assembly to start the construction of 200 triremes, using the income of the newly discovered silver mines at Lavrion. The first clash with the Persian navy was at the Battle of Artemisium, where both sides suffered great casualties. However, the decisive naval clash occurred at Salamis, where Xerxes' invasion fleet was decisively defeated.

"Tereus: ''Where are you from?'' Euelpides: ''From where the good triremes come'' (''i.e.'' Athens)"

'''Aristophanes', The Birds''

After Salamis and another Greek victory over the Persian fleet at Mycale, the Ionian cities were freed, and the Delian League was formed under the aegis of Athens. Gradually, the predominance of Athens turned the League effectively into an Athenian Empire. The source and foundation of Athens' power was her strong fleet, composed of over 200 triremes. It not only secured control of the Aegean Sea and the loyalty of her allies, but also safeguarded the trade routes and the grain shipments from the Black Sea, which fed the city's burgeoning population. In addition, as it provided permanent employment for the city's poorer citizens, the fleet played an important role in both maintaining and promoting the radical Athenian form of democracy. Athenian maritime power is the first example of thalassocracy in world history. Aside from Athens, other major naval powers of the era included Syracuse, Corfu and Corinth.
In the subsequent Peloponnesian War, naval actions fought by triremes featured prominently, and despite numerous land engagements, Athens was finally defeated through the destruction of her fleet during the Sicilian Expedition and finally, at the Battle of Aegospotami, at the hands of Sparta and her allies.

Construction

Because the triremes had positive buoyancy, no remains of the ship have been found.^[7] Hence, the only information we have concerning the trireme's construction comes from written sources and indirect archaeological evidence. Most of it concerns the "classical" type of the 5th century, especially as used by Athens. Valuable further information was provided by the trireme reconstruction project (see below).

Dimensions

Excavations of the ship sheds (''neosoikoi'') at the harbour of Zea in Piraeus, which was the main war harbour of ancient Athens, were carried out by Dragatzis and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in 1885. They provided us a with general outline of the Athenian trireme. It was about 36 meters in length, and just 6 m at its widest. The height of the sheds' interior was established as 4,026 m, leading to estimates that the height of the hull above the water surface was ca. 2,15 m. Its draught was relatively shallow, about 1 m, which, in addition to the relatively flat keel, allowed it to be beached easily.

Propulsion

The ship's primary propulsion came from the ca. 170 oars. At tests conducted with the reconstructed ''Olympias'', a steady speed of 4 knots could be maintained, with half the crew resting at a time. The ship also had two masts, a main (''istos megas'') and a small foremast (''istos akateios''), with square sails, while steering was provided by two paddles at the bow.

Crew

The total crew (''plērōma'') of the ship was about 200. They were divided as follows:

★ The ships captain, the trierarch (''triērarchos''). He was a wealthy Athenian citizen (usually from the class of the ''pentakosiomedimoi''), responsible for manning and maintaining the ship for a year, which otherwise belonged to the state. The ''triērarchia'' was one of the liturgies of ancient Athens, and although it afforded great prestige, it constituted a great financial burden, so that in the fourth century, it was often shared by two citizens, and in 347 BC to special boards.

★ The command crew, headed by the helmsman the ''kybernētēs'', who was always an experienced seaman and often the actual commander of the vessel. Other officers were the bow lookout (''prōreus'' or ''prōratēs''), the boatswain (''keleustēs''), the quartermaster (''pentēkontarchos''), the shipwright (''naupēgos''), the piper (''aulētēs'') who gave the rowers' rhythm and 2 ''toicharchoi'', in charge of the rowers on each side of the ship.

★ 17 sailors handling the masts and the sails.

★ 170-174 rowers (''eretai''), selected from the poorer strata of Athenian society (the ''thētai'') divided according to their positions into:

★
★ 62 ''thranitai'' in the top row (''thranos'' means "deck").

★
★ 54-58 ''zygitai'' in the middle row, named after the beams (''zygoi'') on which they sat.

★
★ 54 ''thalamitai'' or ''thalamioi'' in the lowest row, (''thalamos'' means "hold").

★ a varying number of marines (''epibatai''), usually 10-20, for boarding actions.^[8]

Tactics

In the ancient world, naval combat relied on two methods: ramming and boarding. Rams (''embolon'') were fitted to the prows of warships, and were used to rupture the hull of the enemy ship. The preferred method of attack was to come in from astern and behind, with the aim not of creating a single hole, but of rupturing as big a length of the enemy vessel as possible. The minimum speed necessary for a successful impact was about 10 knots. Another method was to brush alongside the enemy ship, with oars drawn in, in order to break the enemy's oars and render the ship immobile, to be finished off with ease. Unlike later eras, boarding actions were not very frequent with the triremes. Their small size allowed for a limited number of marines to be carried aboard, and during the 5th and 4th centuries, emphasis was laid on maneuverability and speed, not on armor and firing power, although fleets less confident of their ability in ramming were prone to load more marines onto their ships. In any case, prior to engagement, the masts and railings of the ship were taken down, hindering any attempt at using grappling hooks. The Athenians especially became masters in the art of ramming, using light, un-decked (''aphraktai'') triremes.
Squadrons of triremes employed a variety of tactics. The ''periplous'' (Gk., "sailing around") involved outflanking or encircling the enemy so as to attack them in the vulnerable rear; the ''diekplous'' (Gk., "Sailing out through") involved a concentrated charge so as to break a hole in the enemy line, allowing galleys to break through and then wheel to attack the enemy line from behind; and the ''kyklos'' (Gk., "circle") and the ''mēnoeidēs kyklos'' (Gk. "half-circle"), were defensive tactics to be employed against these maneuvers. In all of these maneuvers, the ability to accelerate faster, row faster, and turn more sharply than one's enemy was very important.

Changes of engagement and construction

During the Hellenistic period, the light trireme was supplanted by larger warships in dominant navies, especially the pentere/quinquereme. The maximum practical number of oar banks a ship could have was three. So the numbers did not refer to the banks of oars anymore (for biremes, triremes and quinquiremes), but to the number of rowers per vertical section, with several men on each oar. The reasons for this development was the increasing use of armor on the bows of warships against ramming attacks, which again required heavier ships for a successful attack. This increased the number of rowers per ship, and also made it possible to use less well-trained personnel for moving these new ships to the minimum impact speed of 10 knots. This change was accompanied by an increased reliance on tactics like boarding, missile skirmishes and using warships as platforms for artillery.
Triremes continued to be the mainstay of all smaller navies. While the Hellenistic kingdoms did develop the quinquireme, most navies of the Greek homeland and the smaller colonies could only afford triremes. It was used by the Diadochi Empires and sea powers like Syracuse, Carthage and later Rome. The difference to the classical 5th century Athenian ships was that they were armored against ramming and carried significantly more marines. Lightened versions of the trireme and smaller vessels were often used as auxiliaries, and still performed quite effectively against the heavier ships, thanks to their greater maneuverability.
With the rise of Rome the biggest fleet of quinquiremes temporarily ruled the Mediterranean, but during the civil wars after Caesar's death the fleet was on the wrong side and a new warfare with light liburnians was developed. By Imperial times the fleet was relatively small and had mostly political influence, controlling the grain supply and fighting pirates, who usually employed light biremes and liburnians. But instead of the successful liburnians of the civil war, it was again centered around light triremes, but still with many marines. Out of this type of ship the dromon developed.

Reconstruction

Main articles: Olympias (trireme)


In 1985–1987 a shipbuilder in Piraeus, financed by Frank Welsh (a Suffolk banker, writer and trireme enthusiast), advised by historian J. S. Morrison and naval architect John F. Coates (who with Welsh founded the Trireme Trust that initiated and managed the project), and informed by evidence from underwater archaeology, built a reconstructed Athenian trireme, ''Olympias''.
Crewed by 170 volunteer oarsmen and oarswomen, ''Olympias'' in 1988 achieved 9 knots (17 km/h). These results, achieved with inexperienced crew, suggest that the ancient writers were not exaggerating about straight-line performance. In addition, ''Olympias'' was able to execute a 180-degree turn in one minute and in an arc no wider than two and one half (2.5) ship-lengths. Additional sea trials took place in 1987, 1990, 1992 and 1994. In 2004 ''Olympias'' was used ceremonially to transport the Olympic Flame from the port of Keratsini to the main port of Piraeus as the 2004 Olympic Torch Relay entered its final stages in the run-up to the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.
The builders of the reconstruction project considered that it effectively proved conclusively what had previously been in doubt, that Athenian triremes were arranged with the crew positioned in a staggered arrangement on three levels with one person per oar. This would have made optimum use of the available internal dimensions. However since modern humans are on average approximately 6 cm (2 inches) taller than Ancient Greeks (and the same relative dimensions can be presumed for oarsmen and other athletes), the construction of a craft which followed the precise dimensions of the ancient vessel led to cramped rowing conditions and consequent restrictions on the modern crew's ability to propel the vessel with full efficiency, which perhaps explains why the ancient speed records stand unbroken.

Sources

★ The Ancient Mariners, , Lionel, Casson, Princeton University Press, 1991,

★ The trireme sails again, , John F., Coates, Scientific American, 1989

★ Ancient oared warships, , Vernon, Foley, Scientific American, 1981

★ A History of Seafaring in the Classical World, , Fik, Meijer, Croom and Helm, 1986,

★ Greek naval tactics in the 5th century BC, , John S., Morrison, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, 1974

★ Athenian Trireme: the History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship, , John S., Morrison, , 1986

★ Greek Oared Ships: 900–322 BC, , John S., Morrison, Cambridge University Press, 1968,

★ AGE OF THE GALLEY: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since pre-Classical Times, , John S., Morrison, Conway Maritime Press, 2004,

★ Ships and Sea-Power Before the Great Persian War: The Ancestry of the Ancient Trireme, , Herman T., Wallinga, E.J. Brill, 1993,

★ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War

References

1. Thucydides I.13.2-5
2. Diodorus, ''Bibliotheca historica'', XIV.42.3
3. ''Stromata'', I.16.36
4. The Age of the Galley, p. 45-46
5. Herodotus, III.44
6. Thucydides I.14.1-3
7. The Age of the Galley, p. 62
8. At the Battle of Salamis, each Athenian ship was recorded to have 14 hoplites and 4 archers on board. (Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'' Themistocles XIV

External links

★ Hellenic Navy's (Greek Navy) web page for Olympias trireme reconstruction

★ Michael Lahanas's page

★ E. J. de Meester's page

★ For merchant ships see

★ ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890)'', entry on "Warships"

★ The Trireme Trust