'Publius' (or 'Gaius') 'Cornelius Tacitus' (ca.
56 – ca.
117) was a
senator and a
historian of the
Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the ''
Annals'' and the ''
Histories''—examine the reigns of the
Roman Emperors
Tiberius,
Claudius,
Nero and those that reigned in the
Year of the Four Emperors. These two works span the history of the
Roman Empire from the death of
Augustus in
14 AD to (presumably) the death of emperor
Domitian in
96 AD. There are significant
lacunae in the surviving texts.
Other works by Tacitus discuss
oratory (in
dialogue format, see ''
Dialogus de oratoribus''),
Germania (in ''
De origine et situ Germanorum''), and biographical notes about his father-in-law
Agricola, primarily during his campaign in
Britannia (see ''
De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae'').
Tacitus'
historiographical style in his major works is
annalistic. An
author writing in the latter part of the
Silver Age of Latin literature, his work is distinguished by a boldness and sharpness of wit, and a compact and sometimes unconventional use of
Latin.
Biography
While Tacitus' works contain a lot of information about his world, details regarding his personal life are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer
Pliny the Younger, an inscription found at
Mylasa in
Caria,
[1] and educated guesswork.
Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an
equestrian family;
[2] like many Latin authors of the
Golden and
Silver Ages, he was from the provinces, probably either northern
Italy,
Gallia Narbonensis, or
Hispania. The exact place and date of his birth are not known, while his
praenomen (first name) is similarly a mystery; in letters from
Sidonius Apollinaris his name is ''Gaius'', but in the major surviving manuscript of his work his name is given as ''Publius''.
[3] (One scholar's suggestion of ''Sextus'' has gained no traction.)
[4]
Family and early life
The older
aristocratic families were largely destroyed during the
proscriptions at the end of the
Republic, and Tacitus is clear that he owes his rank to the
Flavian emperors (''Hist.''
1.1). The theory that he descended from a
freedman finds no support apart from his statement, in an invented speech, that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen (''Ann.''
13.27), and is dismissed by prominent historians.
[5]
His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who was
procurator of
Belgica and
Germania; Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who grew and aged rapidly (
N.H. ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html 7.76), and implies an early death. If Cornelius was Tacitus' father and since there is no mention of Tacitus suffering such a condition in the surviving record, it would likely refer to a brother instead.
[6] This connection, and the friendship between the
younger Pliny and Tacitus, led many scholars to the conclusion that the two families were of similar class, means, and background: equestrians, of significant wealth, and from provincial families.
[7]
The province of his birth is unknown. His marriage to the daughter of the Narbonensian senator
Gnaeus Julius Agricola may indicate that he, too, came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus' dedication to
Fabius Iustus in the ''Dialogus'' may indicate a connection with Spain, while his friendship with Pliny indicates northern Italy.
[8] None of this evidence is conclusive. No evidence exists that Pliny's friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Pliny's letters ever hint that the two men had a common background.
[9] Indeed, the strongest piece of evidence is in Pliny Book 9, Letter 23, which reports that when Tacitus was asked if he were Italian or provincial, and upon giving an unclear answer, was further asked if he were Tacitus or Pliny. Since Pliny was from Italy, some historians infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, possibly Gallia Narbonensis.
[10]
His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his sympathetic depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule (e.g., ''Ann.''
2.9), have led some to suggest that he was a
Celt; the Celts had occupied Gaul before the Romans, were famous for their skill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome.
[11]
Public life, marriage, and literary career
As a young man, Tacitus studied
rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in
law and
politics; like Pliny, he may have studied under
Quintilian.
[12] In 77 or 78 he married
Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola;
[13] little is known of their home life, save that Tacitus loved
hunting and the outdoors.
[14] He started his career (probably the ''
latus clavus'', mark of the senator)
[15] under
Vespasian,
[16] but it was in 81 or 82, under
Titus, that he entered political life, as
quaestor.
[His debt to Titus is stated in the ''Histories'' (1.1); since Titus's rule was short, these are the only years possible.] He advanced steadily through the ''
cursus honorum'', becoming
praetor in 88 and a
quindecemvir, a member of the priest college in charge of the
Sibylline Books and the
Secular games.
[17] He gained acclaim as a lawyer and an
orator; his skill in public speaking gave a marked irony to his
cognomen: ''Tacitus'' ('silent').
He served in the provinces from ca. 89 to ca. 93 either in command of a
legion or in a civilian post.
[18] His person and property survived Domitian's reign of terror (93–96), but the experience left him jaded and grim (perhaps ashamed at his own complicity), and gave him the hatred of
tyranny evident in his works.
[19] The ''Agricola'', chs.
44–
45, is illustrative:
Agricola was spared those later years during which Domitian, leaving now no interval or breathing space of time, but, as it were, with one continuous blow, drained the life-blood of the Commonwealth... It was not long before our hands dragged Helvidius to prison, before we gazed on the dying looks of Manricus and Rusticus, before we were steeped in Senecio's innocent blood. Even Nero turned his eyes away, and did not gaze upon the atrocities which he ordered; with Domitian it was the chief part of our miseries to see and to be seen, to know that our sighs were being recorded...
From his seat in the
Senate he became
suffect consul in 97 during the reign of
Nerva, being the
first of his family to do so. During his tenure he reached the height of his fame as an orator when he delivered the funeral oration for the famous veteran soldier
Lucius Verginius Rufus.
[20]
In the following year he wrote and published the ''Agricola'' and ''Germania'', announcing the beginnings of the literary endeavors that would occupy him until his death.
[21] Afterwards he absented from public life, but returned during
Trajan's reign. In 100, he, along with his friend
Pliny the Younger, prosecuted
Marius Priscus (
proconsul of Africa) for corruption. Priscus was found guilty and sent into exile; Pliny wrote a few days later that Tacitus had spoken "with all the majesty which characterizes his usual style of oratory".
[22]
A lengthy absence from politics and law followed while he wrote his two major works: the ''Histories'' and the ''Annals''. In 112 or 113 he held the highest civilian governorship, that of the Roman province of
''Asia'' in Western
Anatolia, recorded in an inscription found at Mylasa (mentioned above). A passage in the ''Annals'' fixes 116 as the ''
terminus post quem'' of his death, which may have been as late as 125.
[23] It is unknown whether he had any children, though the ''
Augustan History'' reports that the emperor
Marcus Claudius Tacitus claimed him for an ancestor and provided for the preservation of his works—but like so much of the ''Augustan History'', this story is probably fraudulent.
[24]
Works
The title page of
Justus Lipsius's 1598 edition of the complete works of Tacitus, bearing the stamps of the ''Bibliotheca Comunale'' in
Empoli,
Italy.
Five works ascribed to Tacitus have survived (albeit with some lacunae), the largest of which are the ''Annals'' and the ''Histories''. The dates are approximate:
★ (98) ''
De vita Iulii Agricolae'' (''The Life of Julius
Agricola'')
★ (98) ''De origine et situ Germanorum'' (''The
Germania'')
★ (102) ''
Dialogus de oratoribus'' (''Dialogue on Oratory'')
★ (105) ''Historiae'' (''
Histories'')
★ (117) ''Ab excessu divi Augusti'' (''
Annals'')
Major works
The ''
Annals'' and the ''
Histories'', originally published separately, were meant to form a single edition of thirty books.
[25] Although Tacitus wrote the ''Histories'' before the ''Annals'', the events in the ''Annals'' precede the ''Histories''; together they form a continuous narrative from the death of
Augustus (14) to the death of
Domitian (96). Though parts have been lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era.
The Histories
Main articles: Histories (Tacitus)
In an early chapter of the ''Agricola'', Tacitus said he wished to speak about the years of Domitian,
Nerva, and
Trajan. In the ''Histories'' the scope has changed; Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time. Instead, he will cover the period from the civil wars of the
Year of Four Emperors and end with the despotism of the
Flavians. Only the first four books and twenty-six chapters of the fifth book survive, covering the year 69 and the first part of 70. The work is believed to have continued up to the death of Domitian on
September 18,
96. The fifth book contains—as a prelude to the account of Titus's suppression of the
Great Jewish Revolt—a short
ethnographic survey of the ancient
Jews and is an invaluable record of the educated Romans' attitude towards that people.
The Annals
Main articles: Annals (Tacitus)
The ''Annals'' was Tacitus' final work, covering the period from the death of
Augustus Caesar in the year 14 AD. He wrote at least sixteen books, but books 7-10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11 and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death of
Tiberius and books 7-12 presumably covered the reigns of
Caligula and
Claudius. The remaining books cover the reign of
Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 or until the end of that year, to connect with the ''Histories''. The second half of book 16 is missing (ending with the events of the year 66). We do not know whether Tacitus completed the work or whether he finished the other works that he had planned to write; he died before he could complete his planned histories of Nerva and Trajan, and no record survives of the work on
Augustus Caesar and the beginnings of the Empire with which he had planned to finish his work.
Minor works
Tacitus wrote three minor works on various subjects: the ''Agricola'', a biography of his father-in-law
Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the ''Germania'', a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the ''Dialogus'', a dialogue on the art of
rhetoric.
Germania
Main articles: Germania (book)
The ''Germania'' (
Latin title: ''De Origine et situ Germanorum'') is an ethnographic work on the diverse set of
Germanic tribes outside the
Roman Empire.
Ethnography had a long and distinguished heritage in
classical literature, and the ''Germania'' fits squarely within the tradition established by authors from
Herodotus to
Julius Caesar. Tacitus had written a similar, albeit shorter, piece in his ''Agricola'' (chapters 10–13). The book begins with a description of the lands, laws, and customs of the Germans (chapters 1–27); it then segues into descriptions of individual tribes, beginning with those dwelling closest to Roman lands and ending on the uttermost shores of the
Baltic Sea, with a description of the primitive and savage
Fenni and the unknown tribes beyond them.
Agricola (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae)
Main articles: Agricola (book)
The ''Agricola'' (written ca. 98) recounts the life of
Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general and Tacitus' father-in-law; it also covers, briefly, the geography and
ethnography of ancient
Britain. As in the ''Germania'', Tacitus favorably contrasts the liberty of the native
Britons with the corruption and tyranny of the Empire; the book also contains eloquent and vicious polemics against the rapacity and greed of Rome.
Dialogus
The style of the ''Dialogus'' follows Cicero's models for Latin rhetoric.
There is uncertainty about when Tacitus wrote ''Dialogus de oratoribus'' , but it was probably after the ''Agricola'' and the ''Germania''. Many characteristics set it apart from the other works of Tacitus, so that its authenticity has been questioned, although it is still grouped with the ''Agricola'' and the ''Germania'' in the manuscript tradition. The way of speaking in the ''Dialogus'' seems closer to
Cicero's proceedings, refined but not prolix, which inspired the teaching of
Quintilian; it lacks the incongruities that are typical of Tacitus' major historical works. It may have been written when Tacitus was young; its dedication to Fabius Iustus would thus give the date of publication, but not the date of writing. More probably, the unusually classical style may be explained by the fact that the ''Dialogus'' is a work dealing with
rhetoric. For works in the ''rhetoric'' genre, the structure, the language, and the style of Cicero were the usual models.
The sources of Tacitus
Tacitus used the official sources of the Roman state: the ''
acta senatus'' (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the ''
acta diurna populi Romani'' (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital). He read collections of emperors' speeches, such as
Tiberius and
Claudius. Generally, Tacitus was a scrupulous historian who paid careful attention to his historical works. The minor inaccuracies in the ''Annals'' may be due to Tacitus dying before finishing (and therefore final proofreading) of this work. He used a variety of historical and literary sources; he used them freely and he chose from sources of varied opinions.
Tacitus cites some of his sources directly, among them
Cluvius Rufus,
Fabius Rusticus and
Pliny the Elder, who had written ''Bella Germaniae'' and a historical work which was the continuation of that of
Aufidius Bassus. Tacitus used some collections of letters (''epistolarium'') and various notes. He also took information from ''exitus illustrium virorum''. These were a collection of books by those who were antithetical to the emperors. They tell of the sacrifice of the martyr to freedom, especially the men who committed suicide, following the theory of the
Stoics. While he placed no value on the Stoic theory of suicide, Tacitus used accounts of famous suicides to give a dramatic tone to his stories. These suicides seemed, to him, ostentatious and politically useless; however, he gives prominence to the speeches of some of those about to commit suicide, for example
Cremutius Cordus' speech in ''Ann.'' IV, 34-35.
Literary style
Tacitus' writings are known for their deep-cutting and dense prose, seldom glossy, in contrast to the more placable style of some of his contemporaries, like
Plutarch. Describing a near defeat of the Roman army in ''Ann.'' I, 63 Tacitus does apply gloss, but does so by the ''brevity'' with which he describes the end of the hostilities, than by embellishing phrases.
In most of his writings he keeps to a chronological ordering of his narration, with only seldom an outline of the "bigger picture", and leaves the reader to construct that picture for himself. Nonetheless, when he does sketch the bigger picture, for example, in the opening paragraphs of the ''Annals'' - summarizing the situation at the end of the reign of Augustus - he uses a few condensed phrases to take the reader to the heart of the story.
Approach to history
Tacitus' historical style combines various approaches to history into a method of his own (owing some debt to
Sallust): seamlessly blending straightforward descriptions of events, pointed moral lessons, and tightly-focused dramatic accounts, his historiography contains deep, and often pessimistic, insights into the workings of the human mind and the nature of power.
Tacitus' own declaration regarding his approach to history is famous (''
Ann.'' I,1):
:
| inde consilium mihi . . . tradere . . . sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. | | Hence my purpose is to relate . . . without either anger or zeal, from any motives to which I am far removed. |
There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus' "neutrality" (or "partiality" to others, which would make the quote above no more than a
figure of speech).
Throughout his writing, Tacitus is concerned with the
balance of power between the
Senate and the
Emperors,
corruption and the growing
tyranny among the governing
classes of Rome as they adjust to the new imperial régime. In Tacitus' view, they squandered their cultural traditions of
free speech and independence to placate the often bemused (and rarely benign) emperor.
Tacitus explored the emperors' increasing dependence on the goodwill of the armies to secure the ''principes''. The internecine murders of the Julio-Claudians eventually gave way to opportunist generals. These generals, backed by the legions they commanded, followed Julius Caesar's example (and that of Sulla and Pompey) in realising that military might could secure them the political power in Rome. Tacitus believed this realisation came with the death of Nero, (''Hist.
1.4)
Welcome as the death of Nero had been in the first burst of joy, yet it had not only roused various emotions in Rome, among the Senators, the people, or the soldiery of the capital, it had also excited all the legions and their generals; for now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome.
Tacitus' political career was largely spent under the emperor Domitian; his experience of the tyranny, corruption, and
decadence prevalent in the era (81–96) may explain his bitter and ironic political analysis. He warned against the dangers of unaccountable power, against the love of power untempered by principle, and against the popular
apathy and corruption, engendered by the wealth of the
empire, which allowed such evils to flourish. The experience of Domitian's tyrannical reign is generally also seen as the cause of the sometimes unfairly bitter and ironic cast to his portrayal of the
Julio-Claudian emperors.
Nonetheless the image he builds of
Tiberius throughout the first six books of the ''Annals'' is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars analyse the image of Tiberius as predominantly ''positive'' in the first books, becoming predominantly ''negative'' in the following books relating the intrigues of
Sejanus. Even then, the entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is a crimson tale dominated by
hypocrisy by and around the new emperor coming to power; and in the later books some kind of respect for the wisdom and cleverness of the old emperor, keeping out of Rome to secure his position, is often transparent.
In general Tacitus does not fear to give words of praise and words of rejection to the same person, often explaining openly which he thinks the commendable and which the despicable properties. Not ''conclusively'' taking sides for or against the persons he describes is his hallmark, and led thinkers in later times to interpret his works as well as a ''defense'' of an imperial system, as a ''rejection'' of the same (see
Tacitean studies, ''Black'' vs. ''Red'' Tacitists). A better illustration of Tacitus' "sine ira et studio" is scarcely imaginable.
Prose style
Tacitus' skill with written Latin is unsurpassed; no other author is considered his equal, except perhaps for
Cicero. His style differs both from the prevalent style of the
Silver Age and from that of the
Golden Age; though it has a calculated grandeur and eloquence (largely thanks to Tacitus' education in rhetoric), it is extremely concise, even
epigrammatic—the sentences are rarely flowing or beautiful, but their point is always clear. The same style has been both derided as "harsh, unpleasant, and thorny" and praised as "grave, concise, and pithily eloquent".
His historical works focus on the
psyches and inner motivations of the characters, often with penetrating insight—though it is questionable how much of his insight is correct, and how much is convincing only because of his rhetorical skill. He is at his best when exposing hypocrisy and
dissimulation; for example, he follows a narrative recounting
Tiberius' refusal of the title ''pater patriae'' by recalling the institution of a law forbidding any "treasonous" speech or writings—and the frivolous prosecutions which resulted (''Annals'', 1.72). Elsewhere (''Annals'' 4.64–66) he compares Tiberius' public distribution of fire relief to his failure to stop the perversions and abuses of justice which he had begun. Though this kind of insight has earned him praise, he has also been criticized for ignoring the larger context of the events which he describes.
Tacitus owes the most, both in language and in method, to
Sallust;
Ammianus Marcellinus is the later historian whose work most closely approaches him in style.
Studies and reception history
Main articles: Tacitean studies
From
Pliny the Younger's
7th Letter (to Tacitus), §33:
:
| Auguror nec me fallit augurium, historias tuas immortales futuras. | | I predict, and my predictions do not fail me, that your histories will be immortal. |
Tacitus is remembered first and foremost as Rome's greatest historian, the equal—if not the superior—of
Thucydides, the ancient Greeks' foremost historian; the
''Encyclopædia Britannica'' opined that he "ranks beyond dispute in the highest place among men of letters of all ages". His influence extends far beyond the field of history. His work has been read for its moral instruction, its gripping and dramatic narrative, and its inimitable prose style; it is as a political theorist, though, that he has been, and remains, most influential outside the field of history.
[26] The political lessons taken from his work fall roughly into two camps, as identified by
Giuseppe Toffanin: the "red Tacitists", who used him to support
republican ideals, and the "black Tacitists", those who read him as a lesson in
Machiavellian ''
realpolitik''.
[27]
Though his work is the most reliable source for the history of his era, its factual accuracy is occasionally questioned: the ''Annals'' are based in part on secondary sources of unknown reliability, and there are some obvious minor mistakes, for instance confusing the two daughters of
Mark Antony and
Octavia Minor, both named
Antonia). The ''Histories'', written from
primary documents and intimate knowledge of the Flavian period, is thought to be more accurate, though Tacitus' hatred of Domitian seemingly colored its tone and interpretations.
See also
★
Republic (Plato): Tacitus' critique of "model state" philosophies.
★
Tacitus on Jesus: a well-known passage from the ''Annals'' mentions the death of
Christ (''Ann.'', xv 44).
Notes
1. ''OGIS'' 487, first brought to light in ''Bulletin de correspondance hellénique'', 1890, pp. 621–623
2. Since he was appointed to the quaestorship during Titus's short rule (see note below) and twenty-five was the minimum age for the position, the date of his birth can be fixed with some accuracy
3. See Oliver, 1951, for an analysis of the manuscript from which the name Publius is taken; see also Oliver, 1977, which examines the evidence for each suggested praenomen (the well-known ''Gaius'' and ''Publius'', the lesser-known suggestions of ''Sextus'' and ''Quintus'') before settling on ''Publius'' as the most likely.
4. Oliver, 1977, cites an article by Harold Mattingly in ''Rivista storica dell'Antichità'', 2 (1972) 169–185
5. Syme, 1958, pp. 612–613; Gordon, 1936, pp. 145–146
6. Syme, 1958, p. 60, 613; Gordon, 1936, p. 149; Martin, 1981, p. 26
7. Syme, 1958, p. 63
8. Syme, 1958, pp. 614–616
9. Syme, 1958, pp. 616–619
10. Syme, 1958, p. 619; Gordon, 1936, p. 145
11. Gordon, 1936, pp. 150–151; Syme, 1958, pp. 621–624
12. That he studied rhetoric and law is known from the ''Dialogus'', ch. 2; see also Martin, 1981, p. 26; Syme, 1958, pp. 114–115
13. ''Agricola'', 9
14. Pliny, ''Letters'' 1.6, 9.10; Benario, 1975, pp. 15, 17; Syme, 1958, pp. 541–542
15. Syme, 1958, p. 63; Martin, 1981, pp. 26–27
16. (1.1)
17. In the ''Annals'' (11.11) he mentions that, as praetor, he assisted in the Secular Games held by Domitian, which are dated precisely to 88. See Syme, 1958, p. 65; Martin, 1981, p. 27
18. The ''Agricola'' (45.5) indicates that Tacitus and his wife were absent at the time of Julius Agricola's death in 93. For his occupation during this time see Syme, 1958, p. 68; Benario, 1975, p. 13; Dudley, 1968, pp. 15–16; Martin, 1981, p. 28; Mellor, 1993, p. 8
19. For the effects on Tacitus's ideology see Dudley, 1968, p. 14; Mellor, 1993, pp. 8–9
20. Pliny, ''Letters'', 2.1 (English)
21. In the ''Agricola'' (3) he announces what must be the beginning of his first great project: the ''Histories''. See Dudley, 1968, p. 16
22. Pliny, ''Letters'' 2.11
23. ''Annals'', 2.61, says that the Roman Empire "now extends to the Red Sea". If by "mare rubrum" he means the Persian Gulf, as is possible, then the passage must have been written after Trajan's eastern conquests in 116, but before Hadrian abandoned the new territories in 117. This may indicate only the date of publication for the first books of the ''Annals''; Tacitus himself could have lived well into Hadrian's reign, and there is no reason to suppose that he did not. See Dudley, 1968, p. 17; Mellor, 1993, p. 9; Mendell, 1957, p. 7; Syme, 1958, p. 473; against this traditional interpretation, e.g., Goodyear, 1981, pp. 387-393.
24. ''Augustan History'', ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html ''Tacitus'' X. Scholarly opinion on this story is divided as to whether it is "a confused and worthless rumor" (Mendell, 1957, p. 4) or "pure fiction" (Syme, 1958, p. 796). Sidonius Apollinaris reports (''Letters'', 4.14; cited in Syme, 1958, p. 796) that Polemius, a 5th century Gallo-Roman aristocrat, descended from Tacitus—but this too, says Syme (ibid.) is of little use.
25. Jerome's commentary on the Book of Zechariah (14.1, 2; quoted in Mendell, 1957, p. 228) says that Tacitus's history was extant ''triginta voluminibus'', 'in thirty volumes'.
26. Mellor, 1995, p. xvii
27. Burke, 1969, pp. 162–163
References
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★ Adams, James N. "Were the later books of Tacitus' ''Annals'' revised?" ''Rheinisches Museum'', Vol. 117 (1974), pp. 323–333.
★ Ash, Rhiannon. ''Ordering Anarchy: Armies and Leaders in Tacitus' Histories'' (London: Duckworth, 1999) ISBN 0-7156-2800-3
★ Barnes, T.D. "The Fragments of Tacitus' ''Histories''". ''
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★ Barnes, T.D. "The Significance of Tacitus' ''Dialogus de Oratoribus''". ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Vol. 90 (1986), pp. 225–244.
★ Barnes, T.D. "Tacitus and the Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone Patre". ''
Phoenix'', Vol. 52 (1998), pp. 125–148.
★ Baron, Hans. ''The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance''. (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1966)
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★ Birley, Antony R. "The Life and Death of Cornelius Tacitus". ''Historia'', Vol. 49 (2000), pp. 230–247.
★ Bosworth, A.B. "Mountain and molehill? Cornelius Tacitus and Curtius Rufus". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 54 (2004), pp. 551–567.
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★ Brink, C.O. "Justus Lipsius and the text of Tacitus". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 41 (1951), pp. 32–51.
★ Burke, P. "Tacitism" in Dorey, T.A., 1969, pp. 149–171
★ Clarke, Katherine. "An Island Nation: Re-Reading Tacitus' ''Agricola''". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 91 (2001), pp. 94–112.
★ Daitz, S.G. "Tacitus' technique of character portrayal". ''
The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 81 (1960), pp. 30–52.
★ Damon, Cynthia. "The Trial of Cn. Piso in Tacitus' ''Annals'' and the Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone patre". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 120, No. 1 (1999), pp. 143–162.
★ Dorey, T.A. (ed.). ''Tacitus'' (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969) ISBN 0-7100-6432-2
★ Dudley, Donald R. ''The World of Tacitus'' (London: Secker and Warburg, 1968) ISBN 0-436-13900-6
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★ Fletcher, G.B.A. "Assonances or plays on words in Tacitus". ''The Classical Review'', Vol. 54 (1940), pp. 184–187.
★ Gill, C. "Character-development in Plutarch and Tacitus". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 33 (1983), pp. 469–487.
★ Ginsburg, Judith. ''Tradition and theme in the Annals of Tacitus'' (New York: Arno Press, 1981)
★ Goodyear, F.R.D. ''The Annals of Tacitus'', vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Commentary on ''Annals'' 1.55-81 and ''Annals'' 2.
★ Goodyear, F.R.D. "Development of language and style in the ''Annals'' of Tacitus". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 58 (1968), pp. 22–31.
★ Goodyear, F.R.D. "The readings of the Leiden manuscript of Tacitus". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 15 (1965), pp. 299–322.
★ Goodyear, F.R.D. ''Tacitus'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), Greece & Rome New Surveys in Classics No. 4. Good survey of scholarship up to 1960s.
★ Gordon, Mary L. "The Patria of Tacitus". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 26, Part 2 (1936), pp. 145–151.
★ Griffin, Miriam T. "Claudius in Tacitus". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 40 (1990), pp. 482–501.
★ Griffin, Miriam T. "The Lyons tablet and Tacitean hindsight". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 32 (1982), pp. 404–418.
★ Griffin, Miriam T. "Tacitus and Pliny". ''Scripta Classica Israelica'', Vol. 18 (1999), pp. 139–158.
★ Griffin, Miriam T. "Tacitus, Tiberius and the Principate", in I. Malkin and Z. Rubihnson (eds.), ''Leaders and Masses in the Roman World: Studies in Honour of Zvi Yavetz'' (Leiden: Brill, 1995), pp. 33–57.
★
Haverfield, F. "Tacitus during the Late Roman Period and the Middle Ages". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 6. (1916), pp. 196–201.
★ Haynes, Holly. ''The History of Make-Believe: Tacitus on imperial Rome'' (Berkeley, Calif.; London: University of California Press, 2003) ISBN 0-520-23650-5
★ Krebs, Christopher B. ''Negotiatio Germaniae. Tacitus' Germania und Enea Silvio Piccolomini, Giannantonio Campano, Conrad Celtis und Heinrich Bebel''. Hypomnemata 158. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005. Pp. 284. ISBN 3-525-25257-9.
★ Löfstedt, Einar. "The Style of Tacitus", in Idem, ''Roman Literary Portraits'', transl. by P.M. Fraser (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), pp.157–180.
★ Luce, T.J., and Woodman, Antony J. (eds.) ''Tacitus and the Tacitean Tradition'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-691-06988-3
★ Marsh, Frank Burr. "Tacitus and aristocratic tradition". ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 21 (1926), pp. 289–310.
★ Martin, Ronald. "The Leiden manuscript of Tacitus". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 14 (1964), pp. 109–119.
★ Martin, Ronald. ''Tacitus'' (London: Batsford, 1981)
★ Martin, Ronald. "Tacitus and the Death of Augustus". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 5 (1955), pp. 123–128.
★ Mattingly, H.B. "Tacitus' praenomen: the politics of a moderate". ''Rivista storica dell’antichità'', Vol. 2 (1972), pp. 169–185.
★ Mellor, Ronald. ''Tacitus'' (London: Routledge, 1993) ISBN 0-415-90665-2
★ Mellor, Ronald (ed.). ''Tacitus: The Classical Heritage'' (New York: Garland Publishing, 1995) ISBN 0-8153-0933-3
★ Mendell, Clarence. ''Tacitus: The Man and His Work''. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957) ISBN 0-208-00818-7
★ Miller, Norma P. "The Claudian Tablet and Tacitus: A Reconsideration". ''Rheinisches Museum'', Vol. 99 (1956), pp. 304–315.
★ Miller, Norma P. "Dramatic speech in Tacitus". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 85 (1964), pp. 279–296.
★ Miller, Norma P. "Tiberius Speaks: An Examination of the Utterances Ascribed to Him in the Annals of Tacitus". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 89 (1968), pp. 1–19.
★
Momigliano, Arnaldo. "The First Political Commentary on Tacitus". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 37 (1947), pp. 91–101.
★ Murgia, C. "The Date of Tacitus' ''Dialogus''". ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Vol. 84 (1980), pp. 99–125.
★ Murgia, C. "Pliny's Letters and the ''Dialogus''". ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Vol. 89 (1985), pp. 171–206.
★ O'Gorman, Ellen. ''Irony and Misreading in the Annals of Tacitus'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0-521-66056-4
★
Oliver, Revilo P. "The First Medicean MS of Tacitus and the Titulature of Ancient Books". ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol. 82 (1951), pp. 232–261.
★ Oliver, Revilo P. "The Praenomen of Tacitus". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 98, No. 1 (Spring, 1977), pp. 64–70.
★ Persival, J. "Tacitus and the Principate". ''Greece & Rome'', Vol. 27 (1980), pp. 119–133.
★ Reid, James Smith. "Tacitus as a historian". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 11 (1921), pp. 191–199.
★ Rutland, L. "The Tacitean Germanicus. Suggestions for a re-evaluation". ''Rheinisches Museum'', Vol. 130 (1987), pp. 153–163.
★ Sage, M.M. "Tacitus and the accession of Tiberius". ''The Ancient Society'', Vol. 13/14 (1982/83), pp. 293–321.
★ Schellhase, Kenneth C. ''Tacitus in Renaissance Political Thought'' (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1976) ISBN 0-226-73700-4
★ Shatzman, I. "Tacitean rumours". ''Latomus'', Vol. 33 (1974), pp.549–578.
★ Shotter, D.C.A. "Tacitus, Tiberius and Germanicus". ''Historia'', Vol. 17 (1968), pp. 194–214.
★ Sinclaire, Patrick. ''Tacitus the Sententious Historian: A sociology of rhetoric in Annales 1-6'' (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995) ISBN 0-271-01333-8
★
Syme, Ronald. "How Tacitus Wrote ''Annals'' I-III", in Idem, ''Roman Papers'', Vol. 3 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 1014–1042.
★ Syme, Ronald. ''Tacitus'', Volumes 1 and 2. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958) (reprinted in 1985 by the same publisher, with the ISBN 0-19-814327-3) is the definitive study of his life and works.
★ Syme, Ronald. ''Ten Studies in Tacitus''. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970) ISBN 0-19-814358-3
★ Talbert, R.J.A. "Tacitus and the Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone patre". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 120, No. 1 (1999), pp. 89–97.
★ Townend, G.B. "Cluvius Rufus in the ''Histories'' of Tacitus". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 85 (1964), pp. 337–377.
★ Walker, B. ''The Annals of Tacitus: A study in the writing of history'' (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1952)
★ Wharton, D.B. "Tacitus' Tiberius: The State of the Evidence for the Emperor’s ''Ipsissima Verba'' in the Annals". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 118 (1997), pp. 119–125.
★ Woodman, Anthony John. ''Tacitus Reviewed'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0-19-815258-2
External links
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Bibliography on Tacitus (from
Rutgers University Classics Department)
★ 'Texts by Tacitus':
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Works by Tacitus at the
Internet Archive
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★ At
Perseus Project:
Works by Tacitus in English and/or Latin
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★ At "The Online Books Page":
Online e-texts of Tacitus' works
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★ At "Romansonline" (Latin text can be displayed side by side to translation):
Works by Tacitus
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★ At "The Internet Sacred Text Archive":
Parallel English and Latin text of the complete works of Tacitus
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Works by Tacitus: text, concordances and frequency list
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★ About
Tacitus' Agrippina on QueenDido.org
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