In
sociolinguistics, a 'T-V distinction' describes the situation wherein a
language has
second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of
politeness,
social distance,
courtesy,
familiarity, or
insult toward the
addressee.
History and usage
The expressions 'T-form' and 'V-form' were introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960), based on the initial letters of these pronouns in
Latin, '''t'u'' and '''v'os''. In
Latin, ''tu'' was originally the singular, and ''vos'' the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar. According to Brown and Gilman, usage of the plural to the
Roman emperor began in the fourth century AD. They mention the possibility that this was because there were two emperors at that time (in
Constantinople and
Rome), but also mention that "plurality is a very old and ubiquitous metaphor for power" (example: the usage of the "
royal we" in
English, in which it is grammatically acceptable for a
monarch to use the pronoun "we" when referring to themself because they supposedly represent the opinion of every person they rule, like
Queen Victoria's famed saying ".") This usage was extended to other powerful figures, such as
Pope Gregory I (590-604). But Brown and Gilman note that it was only between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries that the norms for the use of T- and V-forms crystallized.
Brown and Gilman argued that the choice of form is governed by either relationships of 'power' and/or 'solidarity', depending on the culture of the speakers, showing that 'power' had been the dominant predictor of form in Europe until the twentieth century. Thus it was quite normal for a powerful person to use a T-form but expect a V-form in return. However in the twentieth century the dynamic shifted in favour of solidarity, so that people would use T-forms with those they knew, and V-forms in service encounters, with usage being the norm in both cases.
Modern
English has no T-V distinction. It can often be confusing for an English speaker learning a language with a T-V distinction to assimilate the rules surrounding when to call someone with the formal or the informal pronoun. Students are often advised to err on the side of caution by using the formal pronouns. However, this risks sounding snobbish or ridiculous. Though English has no
syntactic T-V distinction, there are
semantic analogies, such as whether to address someone by
first name or
last name (or using ''sir'' and ''ma'am''). However the boundaries between formal and informal language differ from language to language, and most languages use formal speech more frequently, and/or in different circumstances than English. In some circumstances it is not unusual to call other people by first name and the respectful form, or last name and familiar form. For example, German shop employees often use these constructs with each other if a customer is present.
The use of these forms calls for
compensating translation of dialogue into English. For example, a character in a French film or novel saying ''"Tutoie-moi!"'' ("Use [the informal pronoun] ''tu'' when addressing me!") might be translated "Don't be so formal!" Conversely, this can lead to constructions denoting an intermediate level of formality in T-V-distinct languages that sound awkward to English-speakers. For example, the catchphrase of "Be careful, Michael" from ''
Knight Rider'' was usually
dubbed ''"Seien Sie vorsichtig, Michael"'' in German, implying both formality (use of ''Sie'') and familiarity (use of first name).
Examples of T-V distinctions
In many languages, the formal singular pronoun derives from a plural form. Many Romance languages have familiar forms derived from the
Latin singular '''t'u'' and formal forms derived from Latin plural '''v'os'', sometimes via a circuitous route. A related concept is
pluralis majestatis, the use of a first-person plural pronoun as a formal replacement for a first-person singular pronoun. Sometimes, singular V-form derives from a third person pronoun. Some languages have separate T and V forms for both singular and plural; others have the same form; others have a T-V distinction only in the singular.
Different languages distinguish pronoun uses in different ways. Even within languages, there are differences between groups (older people and people of higher status tending to both use and expect more formal language) and between various aspects of one language. For example, in 'Dutch', ''u'' is slowly falling into disuse in the plural, and thus one could sometimes address a group as ''jullie'' when one would address each member individually as ''u''. In 'Latin American Spanish', the opposite change has occurred – having lost ''vosotros'', Latin Americans address all groups as ''ustedes'', even if the group is composed of friends whom they would call ''tú'' or ''vos'' (mostly in Argentina). In Standard Peninsular Spanish, however, ''vosotros'' is still regularly employed in familiar conversation. In some cases, V-forms are likely to be
capitalized when written.
Here are some examples of second-person pronouns in languages with T-V distinctions:
| 'second-person singular informal' | 'second-person singular formal' | 'second-person plural informal' | 'second-person plural formal' |
|---|
| Afrikaans | ''jy /jou'' | ''u''
''U'' (to God) | ''julle | ''u'' |
| Albanian | ''ti'' | ''ju'' | ''ju'' | ''ju'' |
| Amharic | አንተ (''antä'') (m)
አንቺ (''anči'') (f) | እስዎ ('') or
እርስዎ ('') | እናንተ ('') | እስዎ ('') or
እርስዎ ('') |
| Arabic | أنت (''anta'', when addressing a man), أنتِ (''anti'', when addressing a woman) | ''anta'' / ''anti''; in some spoken varieties of Arabic, such as Egyptian, terms such as ''ḥaḍretak'' (your grace) or ''sayyidtak'' (your lordship) are used | ''antum'' (when addressing men), ''antunna'' (when addressing women) | ''antum'' / ''antunna''; in some spoken varieties of Arabic, such as Egyptian, terms such as ''ḥaḍretkum'' or ''sayyidatkum'' are used |
| Armenian | ''դու (du) Eastern dialect, դուն (tun) Western dialect'' | ''դուք (duk) Eastern (tuk) Western'' | ''դուք (duk) Eastern (tuk) Western'' | ''դուք (duk) Eastern (tuk) Western'' |
| Basque | ''hi'' (very close or dialectal), ''zu'' | ''zu'', ''berori'' (very respectful) | ''zuek'' | ''zuek'' |
| Bengali | তুই ''tui (very informal)''
তুমি ''tumi'' | আপনি ''aapni'' | তরা ''torah (very informal)''
তুমরা ''tumarah'' | আপনারা ''aapnaarah'' |
| Bosnian | ''ti'' | ''Vi'' | ''vi'' | ''vi'' |
| Bulgarian | ''ти (ti)'' | ''Вие (Vie)'' | ''вие (vie)'' | ''вие (vie)'' |
| Catalan | ''tu''
''vós'' (only to elder people)
''Vós'' (to God) | ''vostè'' | ''vosaltres'' | ''vostès'' |
| Chinese (Mandarin) | 你 ''nǐ'' | 您 ''nín'' | 你们 (你們) ''nǐmen'' | no official form; often 大家 ''dàjiā'' but see below |
| Croatian | ''ti'' | ''Vi'' | ''vi'' | ''vi'' |
| Czech | ''ty'' | ''Vy'' | ''vy'' | ''vy'' |
| Danish | ''du'' | ''De'' | ''I'' | ''De'' |
| Dutch | ''jij /je'' (more in the Netherlands) or
''gij/ge'' (more in Flanders) | ''u'' (Capitalised when addressing God, or in very formal writing: ''U''. Alternatively: ''Gij''(to God)) | ''jullie'' (from ''jij /jou'' + ''lui'' (people) = "''you people''") | ''u'' |
| English | ''you''
''thou /thee'' (archaic and in certain dialects in northwest England) | ''you'' | ''you''
''y'all'' (Southern American English)
''ye /you'' (archaic) | ''you''
''ye /you'' (archaic) |
| Esperanto | ''ci'' (experimental use only), normally ''vi'' | ''vi'' | ''vi'' | ''vi'' |
| Estonian | ''sina'' | ''Teie'' | ''teie'' | ''Teie'' |
| Faroese | ''tú'' | ''tygum'' | ''tit'' | ''tygum'' |
| Filipino | ''ka /ikaw'' | ''kayo'' | ''kayo'' | ''sila'' |
| Finnish | ''sinä'' | ''te'' | ''te'' | ''te'' |
| French | ''tu /toi /te'' | ''vous'' | ''vous'' | ''vous'' |
| Gaelic (Scottish) | ''thu'' | ''sibh'' | ''sibh'' | ''sibh'' |
| Galician | ''tu'', ''tí'' | ''vostede'' | ''vós'' | ''vostedes'' |
| Georgian | შენ ''shen'' | თქვენ ''tkven'' | თქვენ ''tkven'' | თქვენ ''tkven'' |
| German | ''du'' | ''Sie'' | ''ihr'' | ''Sie'' |
| Greek | ''εσύ (esy)'' | ''εσείς (eseis)'' | ''εσείς (eseis)'' | ''εσείς (eseis)'' |
| Hungarian | ''te'' | ''maga'' (formal) or ''Ön'' (official) | ''ti'' | ''maguk'' (formal) or ''Önök'' (official) |
| Hindi | तू ''tū'' (very informal)
तुम ''tum'' | आप ''āp'' | तुम लोग ''tum log'' | आप लोग ''āp log'' |
| Icelandic | ''þú'' | ''þér (obsolete, mostly informal used)'' | ''þið'' | ''þér (obsolete, mostly informal used)'' |
| Indonesian | ''kamu'' | ''Anda'' | ''kalian'' | ''Anda'' |
| Interlingua | ''tu'' (''te'') | ''vos'' | ''vos'' | ''vos'' |
| Italian | ''tu'' (''te'') | ''Lei'' (archaic ''Ella'', old ''voi'') | ''voi'' | ''voi'' (rarely used ''Loro'') |
| Japanese |
お前 ''(omae)''
あんた ''(anta)''
貴様 ''(kisama)''
手前 ''(temae)''
(the latter two have hostile connotations) |
あなた ''(anata)''
君 ''(kimi)''
(''anata'' is more respectful than ''kimi'', but titles or positions are generally used instead for someone of higher status) | お前ら ''(omaera)'' | あなたたち ''(anatatachi)''
君たち ''(kimitachi)'' |
| Kazakh | ''сен (sen)'' | ''сіз (siz)'' | ''сендер (sender)'' | ''сіздер (sizder)'' |
| Korean | ''neo'' | — (directly addressing a person);
''dangsin'' (addressing anonymous readers) | ''neohui'' | — ''(yeoreobun)'' |
| Kung-ekoka | ''a'' | ''i!a'' | ''i!a'' | ''i!a'' |
| Kurdish (North), Kurmanji | تو (''tu'') | هون (''hûn''), هنگۆ (''hingo''), تو (''tu'') | هون (''hûn''), هنگۆ (''hingo'') | هون (''hûn''), هنگۆ (''hingo'') |
| Kurdish (South), Sorani | تۆ (''to'') | ێوه (''êwe''), تۆ (''to'') | ێوه (''êwe'') | ێوه (''êwe'') |
| Kyrgyz | ''сен (sen)'' | ''сиз (siz)'' | ''силер (siler)'' | ''сиздер (sizder)'' |
| Ladino, see Spanish | ''tu'' | ''vozótros'' | ''tu'' | ''vozótros'' |
| Latvian | ''tu'' | ''Jūs'' | ''jūs'' | ''Jūs'' |
| Lithuanian | ''tu'' | ''Jūs'' | ''jūs'' | ''Jūs'' |
| Lombard | ''ti'' | ''vü''; or ''lüü'' (male) or ''lée'' (female) | ''viòltar'' | ''viòltar''; or ''vü''; or ''lur'' |
| Malay | ''kamu'' (standard), ''engkau'' (regional Malay; common spoken short form is ''kau'' -- when pronouced as "ko", is even more informal.), ''hang'' (northern dialect, but understood and accepted across Peninsula Malaysia), ''awak'' (is rude in all contexts except in very close relationships, ''e.g.'' friends [but not acquaintances]) | ''anda'' (polite/friendly formal; found in formal documents and in all formal contexts, ''e.g.'' advertisements. "Anda" is almost never encountered in spoken Malay; instead, most Malaysians would address a respected person by his title or name), ''kamu'' (impolite/unfriendly formal; also found in formal documents and in all formal contexts, where the intention is to convey a forceful tone in writing). | ''kau orang'' (when pronounced as "ko'rang" [equivalent to "y'all" in parts of the U.S.] is slang and more informal), ''kau semua'', ''hangpa'' (northern dialect), ''kalian'' (archaic) | ''anda'', ''kalian'' (archaic) |
| Macedonian | ''ти (ti)'' | ''Вие (Vie)'' | ''вие (vie)'' | ''вие (vie)'' |
| Norwegian (bokmål) | ''du'' | ''De'' | ''dere'' | ''De'' |
| Norwegian (nynorsk) | ''du'' | ''De'' | ''de'' | ''De'' |
| Oriya | ''tu/ tume'' | ''aapano'' | ''tumemane'' | ''aapanomane'' |
| Persian | ''تو to'' | ''شما shomâ'' | ''شما shomâ'' | ''شما shomâ'' |
| Polish | ''ty'' | ''pani'' (to a woman)
''pan'' (to a man)
(verbs following any of the above addresses are in the 3rd person singular form)
In the early period of the communist rule, a practice of using the second-person plural form ''wy'' as a formal way of referring to a single person was introduced (a calque from Russian) but it didn't catch on. | ''wy'' | ''państwo'' (general)
''panie'' (to women)
''panowie'' (to men)
(verbs following any of the above addresses are in the 3rd person plural form, although in many cases for państwo (general) the 2nd person plural form is also possible). |
| Portuguese (Portugal) | ''tu''
''vós'' (regional use) | ''o senhor''/''a senhora'' (more formal)
''você'' (less formal)
''vós'' (archaic and literary) | ''vocês''
''vós'' (archaic, literary, or regional) | ''os senhores''/''as senhoras'' |
| Portuguese (Brazil) | ''você''
(sometimes ''tu'') | ''o senhor''/''a senhora''
''vós'' (archaic and literary) | ''vocês''
''vós'' (archaic and literary) | ''os senhores''/''as senhoras'' |
| Romanian | ''tu'' | ''dumneata'' (used only by older people) / ''dumneavoastră'' (formal) | ''voi'' | ''dumneavoastră'' |
| Russian | ''ты (ty)'' | ''вы (vy) / Вы (Vy) (addressing officials in letters etc)'' | ''вы (vy)'' | ''вы (vy)'' |
| Serbian | ''ти'' (''ti'') | ''Ви'' (''Vi'') | ''ви'' (''vi'') | ''ви'' (''vi'') |
| Slovak | ''ty'' | ''Vy'' | ''vy'' | ''vy'' |
| Slovenian | ''ti'' | ''vi''
''Vi'' (protocolar) | ''vidva'' (dual), ''vidve'' or ''vedve'' (dual - when addressing two women); ''vi'' (plural), ''ve'' (plural - when addressing only women) | ''vi'' (dual and plural) |
| Sorbian (Lower) | ''ty'' | ''Wy'' | ''wej'' (dual), ''wy'' (plural) | ''wy'' |
| Spanish (Peninsular, Equatorial Guinea, Morocco) | ''tú'' | ''usted'' (formerly or literary ''vos'', ''usía'' and ''vuecencia/vuecelencia'' among others) | ''vosotros'' (masc.)
''vosotras'' (fem.) | ''ustedes'' |
| Spanish of the Americas and some parts of Andalusia (altered system: i.e.: ''ustedes estáis'') and Canary Islands where previous system is replacing this one | ''tú'' or ''vos'' | ''usted'' | ''ustedes'' (literary ''vosotros'', ''vosotras'', in poetry, anthems...) | ''ustedes'' |
| Swedish | ''du'' | ''ni'' or ''Ni'' | ''ni'' | ''ni'' or ''Ni'' |
| Tagalog | ''ikáw''
''ka'' (postpositive only) | ''kayó'' | ''kayó'' | ''kayó'' |
| Tajik | ''ту (tu)'' | ''Шумо (Shumo)'' | ''шумо (shumo)'' | ''шумо (shumo)'' or ''шумоён (shumoyon)''(the latter is used in Spoken Tajik only) |
| Tamil | ''nee'' | ''neengal'' | ''neengal'' | ''neengal'' |
| Telugu | ''nuvvu'' | ''meeru'' | ''meer-andaru'' | ''meer-andaru'' |
| Turkish | ''sen'' | ''siz'' | ''siz'' | ''siz, sizler'' |
| Ubykh | '' | '' | '' | '' |
| Ukrainian | ''ти (ty)'' | ''ви (vy) / Ви (Vy) (addressing officials in letters etc)'' | ''ви (vy)'' | ''ви (vy)'' |
| Urdu | تو ''tū'' (very informal)
تم ''tum'' | آپ ''āp'' | تم لوگ ''tum log'' | آپ لوگ ''āp log'' |
| Uyghur | سەن ''sän'' | سىز ''siz'' or سىلى ''sili'' | سىلەر ''silär'' | سىزلەر''sizlär'' |
| Welsh | ''ti'' or ''chdi'' | ''chi'' or ''chwi'' | ''chi'' or ''chwi'' | ''chi'' or ''chwi'' |
| Yiddish | ''du'' | ''ir'' | ''ir'' | ''ir'' |
Language-specific remarks
Arabic
Modern Standard Arabic does not have a T-V distinction, using أنت (''anta'', male) and أنتِ (''anti'', female) for both formal and informal situations in the singular, ''antuma'' or ''antunnaa'' in the
dual, and ''antum'' or ''antunna'' in the plural. However, many
spoken varieties of Arabic ''do'' make the distinction. Notably,
Egyptian Arabic uses حضرتك (''ḥaḍretak''/''ḥaḍretik'', meaning "your grace") and variants as the formal pronoun, with ''anta'' as the informal pronoun. In general, ''ḥaḍretak'' is reserved for elder relatives, authorities, bosses, and senior business partners.
Catalan
Catalan ''vós'' follows the same concordance rules as the French ''vous'' (verbs in second person plural, adjectives in singular), and ''vostè'' follows the same concordance rules as the Spanish ''usted'' (verbs in 3rd person). ''Vostè'' originated from ''vostra mercè'' as a
calque from Spanish, and replaced the original Catalan form ''vós''. Now ''vós'' is used as a respectful form for elders and respected friends, and ''vostè'' for foreigners and people whom one doesn't know well. ''Vostè'' is more distant than ''vós''.
Chinese (Mandarin)
Historically, Mandarin has upheld its T-V distinction rigorously in speech as well as in writing. This is particularly evident in
Beijing, whose
dialect formed the basis for
Standard Mandarin. Written Chinese, which generally strives for a more formal, or even semi-archaic tone, consistently makes the T-V distinction, sometimes even going so far as to employ archaic forms no longer used in speech (such as 閣下 (阁下), géxià, literally, ''from below the pagoda'', used in extremely formal situations in Imperial China). Although rarely, but 前辈 (qianbei) is sometimes still used in very formal settings, and when there is a very large chronological age gap between the speaker and the listener.
Unlike many European languages, the T-V distinction in Mandarin is predicated much more on chronological age rather than on social position ''per se''. Unless there is a very large gap in the social status or social-standing, ''e.g.'' you are addressing your boss, or a servant (or a waiter at a restaurant) is addressing you, people of the same age generally refer to each other in or as 你 (nǐ), even if they are strangers. Older people, including one's parents, are properly addressed in or as 您 (nín). 您 is also used as a way to indicate (formal) affections, because 您 is 你 suffixed with a 心(xin), which means heart -- denoting that the 2nd person and plural persons are addressed with a (formal) affection. As a result of this, it is relatively rare to have a situation where each of two people addresses each other in or as 您, unless it is the intention of the parties concerned to indicate their (formal) affection. As such, 您 may also be used with one's close family members, and it does not carry any implication of distance, or a lack of intimacy, as the vous of modern French does.
In many of the southern languages (for example
Wu), there is no T-V distinction made at all. As a result of this, some southern Chinese, whose mother-tongue is not Mandarin, when speaking Mandarin find it irrelevant, unnecessary, and sometimes difficult to make the distinction. However, as almost all Chinese mother-tongue-speakers (including overseas Chinese) understand the rudimentary rules with regard to the agglutination-''cum''-contextual rules in Chinese languages, this is merely a minor set-back at the beginning of the Mandarin-learning stage -- the suffix of a 心(xin) to 你 in 您 speaks for itself. Nevertheless, many southern Chinese often see 您 as a form of expressing (formal) affections only, and do not make the subtle distinction that 您 may be used in various formal communications. This simple linguistic ''
faux pas'' has earned many southern migrants in Beijing and other northern cities a reputation for being rude and uncouth.
Although the plural forms of personal pronouns in Mandarin are typically formed by adding the word 們 (们) to their singular counterparts, the construction of 您們 is quite rare in Standard Mandarin, indirect constructions such as 大家 (dàjiā, everyone) being preferred when addressing a crowd. The use of 您們 remains extant in the Beijing dialect, however, which retains a number of distinctions lost in Standard Mandarin. Examples of its use include situations where a small number of older people with whom one is relatively familiar is directly addressed, making 大家 awkward.
Croatian
Use of ''ti'' is limited to friends and family, and used among children. In any formal use ''vi'' is used only; ''ti'' can be used among peers in a workplace, but rarely in official documents. ''Vi'' is almost always capitalized, as a sign of respect.
Czech
Traditionally, use of the informal form was limited for relatives and very close friends, for children or to explicitly express social distance. During the second half of the 20th century, use of the informal form grew significantly among coworkers, youth and members of organisations and groups. The formal form is always used in official documents and when dealing with a stranger (especially an older one) as a sign of respect. 2nd-person pronouns (''Ty, Tvůj, Vy, Váš'') are often capitalized in letters, advertisement, etc. The capitalization is optional and is slowly becoming obsolete. A variant of the formal form modeled after German "Sie" (''Oni/oni'', ''Jejich/jejich'', verb ''onikat'') was frequently used during 19th century but disappeared.
In grammar, plural forms are used in personal and possessive
pronouns (''vy'' – you, ''váš'' – your) and in verbs, but not in
participles and
adjectives, they are used in singular forms (when addressing a single person). This is a difference from some other
Slavic languages (
Slovak,
Russian, etc.)
One person
informal
(tykání) | One person
formal
(vykání) | More people
(both formal
and informal) | English |
|---|
| ty děláš | vy děláte | vy děláte | you do |
| dělal jsi | dělal jste | dělali jste | you did |
| jsi hodný | jste hodný | jste hodní | you are kind |
| byl jsi přijat | byl jste přijat | byli jste přijati | you were accepted |
Danish
In Denmark, the use of the formal forms of address has diminished significantly over the last twenty years. ''De'' is still used in the written language, in official letters and the like, but the spoken form will be ''du''. For example, a letter from the Inspector of Taxes inviting you a meeting to go through last year's tax return will use ''De'', but during the meeting itself, everyone will say ''du''. The only people you are expected to say ''De'' to are the royal family. Waiters might very occasionally use ''De'', but this is unexpectedly formal.
In general, say ''du'' to one person, and ''I'' to more than one. Write ''du'' if you know the name of the person to whom you are writing, and ''De'' if you do not.
Dutch
In the
Netherlands (note: this is different in Belgium), the use of formal forms is distinctly less common in modern times. One would use 'u' when addressing a supervisor at work or someone else who is higher up the hierarchy in similar situations. However, Dutch society traditionally upholds strong values of equality, making the use of 'u' come across as somewhat distant and uncomfortable if used for an equal (e.g. a classmate or co-worker). Using 'jij' instead of 'u' for a non-equal (e.g. a teacher or supervisor), however, is considered disrespectful.
One could say there exists an order of "formality" in the pronouns:
★ Netherlands: jij/je - u - U - gij/ge
★ Belgium: gij/ge - u - U
In Belgium, the form gij/ge is still very common in the spoken language. Like the English ''you'', gij/ge is used both in a familiar and in a formal context (although "u" is also often used for formal address). In Belgian schools only the standard Dutch jij/je are taught as familiar forms, and only these forms are used in the media. However, under the influence of dialects ge/gij remains dominant in everyday spoken language. In the Netherlands, ge/gij is only used in referral to
God (and is then capitalized: Gij/Ge) (in Belgium U en Gij/Ge are used to refer to God). The u-form is normally not capitalized, only when writing to a
very important person (e.g. the king, the queen, a minister or a secretary of state), u is capitalized (U). Note that capitalized U does not necessarily refer to God. The derived possessive pronoun "uw" is never capitalized, except when mentioning God.
The pronoun "je" (but not its emphasized form "jij") can also be used impersonally, corresponding to the English
generic you. The more correct form, used in official/technical documents, speeches etc. is 'men'. This is also used to avoid confusion nowadays. For example: 'Je mag hier zeilen. could mean either 'You may sail here' or 'One may sail here'. To avoid confusion, when meaning the latter but absolutely not the former one uses 'men', and vice versa one uses the more explicit 'jij'.
English
Anglo-Saxon (a.k.a.
Old English) had no distinction between formal and informal "you". In Middle English, in the 13th century, the term "ye" was used as a formal version of "thou" (to superiors or non-intimates) — however, this use was often contextually-dependent (i.e. changing dynamically according to shifting nuances in the relationship between two people), rather than static. By the 17th century, "thou" increasingly acquired connotations of contemptuous address, or of addressing one's social inferiors (so the prosecutor in
Sir Walter Raleigh's 1603 trial declaimed "I thou thee, thou traitor!"). Therefore the frequency of use of "thou" started to decline, and it was effectively extinct in the everyday speech of many dialects by the early 18th century. Its use is now archaic except in certain regional dialects, usually as "tha", and Modern English today makes no T-V distinction
The use of the term "thou", however, survives in some liturgical language when addressing God, most notably in the
Lord's Prayer, and is also found in liturgical dialogue (for example, "V. The Lord be with you R. And with thy spirit."). This is not an indication of familiarity, but a retention of the original distinction between singular "thou/thee/thy" and plural "ye/you/your", reflecting the corresponding singular and plural Latin forms in the original texts.
Originally "ye" and "thou" were nominative pronouns, while "you" and "thee" were accusative forms, but by the 15th century, "you" had begun being used as a subject pronoun, and only "thee" survived into
Quaker "
Plain Speech".
Esperanto
The
constructed language Esperanto is not a T-V-distinguishing language. ''Vi'' is the generic second person for both singular and plural, just like ''you'' in English. An informal second person singular pronoun, ''ci'', does exist, but only in theory. It is almost never used in practice.
Some have imagined ''ci'' as an archaic term that was used before and then fell out of common usage, however this is not true. It has only appeared sometimes in experimental language. In standard Esperanto, ''vi'' has always been used since the beginning. For example, ''ci'' appears in neither the ''
Fundamenta Gramatiko'' nor in the ''
Unua Libro''.
Source: http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
Estonian
Estonian is a language with T-V distinction, second person plural (''teie'') is used instead of second person singular (''sina'') as a means of expressing politeness or formal speech. ''Sina'' is the familiar form of address used with family, friends, and minors. The distinction is still much more widely used and more rigid than in closely related Finnish language.
Similar to the French language ''vouvoyer'', the verb ''teietama'' is used, and ''teie'' is used when addressing a (new) customer or a patient, or when talking to a person in his/her function. In hierarchical organizations, like large businesses or armies, ''sina'' is used between members of a same rank/level while ''teie'' is used between members of different ranks. ''Sina'' (the verb ''sinatama'' is also used) is used with relatives, friends, when addressing children and with close colleagues. Borderline situations, such as distant relatives, young adults, customers in a rental shops or new colleagues, sometimes still present difficulties.
Finnish
Today, the use of the informal singular form of address is widespread in all social circles, even among strangers and in business situations. A counter-trend has been reported in recent years, whereby some people are choosing to use the formal plural more often, but in practice it is very unusual to use this form unless addressing people considerably one's senior or in situations where strict adherence to form is expected, such as in the military. As the use of formal plural conveys formal recognition of addressee's status and of polite distance, the formal plural may also be used jeeringly or to protest addressee's snobbery. A native speaker may also switch to formal plural when speaking in anger, as an attempt to remain civil.
The number is expressed in pronouns (''sinä'' or ''sä'' for singular, or ''te'' for plural), verb inflections, and
possessive suffixes. For example, imperatives are expressed in the plural, e.g. ''menkää'' "go(pl.)!". Likewise, the ''-nne'' "your" suffix is used instead of the singular ''-s(i)'' suffix. There is number agreement in Finnish, thus you say ''sinä olet'' "you(sg.) are", but ''te olette'' "you(pl.) are". However, this does not extend to words describing the addressee, which are in the singular. For example, ''oletteko te lääkäri?'' "are(pl.) you(pl.) doctor(sg.)?" A common error, nowadays often made even by native speakers unused to the formal plural, is using the plural form of the main verb in the perfect and pluperfect tenses. The main verb should be in the singular when addressing one person in the formal plural: ''Oletteko kuullut?'' instead of ''
★ Oletteko kuulleet?'' "Have you heard?"
Sometimes the third person is used as a polite form of address, after the Swedish model: ''Mitä rouvalle saisi olla?'' "What would madam like to have?" The passive voice may be used to circumvent the choice of the correct form of address; the passive voice is also the equivalent of the English patronizing we as in ''Kuinkas tänään voidaan?'' "How are we feeling today?"
French
In most
French-speaking regions (Canada is an exception; see below), a rigid ''tu-vous'' distinction is upheld. ''Vous'' is expected when encountering any completely unknown adult under normal circumstances; "abnormal" circumstances include emotional situations like surprising a thief, or addressing informally other road-users while driving (including
swearing at them). New acquaintances who are conscious of having something socially significant in common (e.g. student status, or the same "rank" in some hierarchy) may use ''tu'' more or less immediately as a sign of solidarity. In some cases there may be an explicitly defined practice in a particular company, political party, etc. In general, however, the switch from ''vous'' to ''tu'' is "negotiated" on a case-by-case basis; it can happen nearly unconsciously, or it can become extremely complicated. Rigidly sticking to ''vous'' can become equally awkward in a long-standing relationship. Children (including teenagers) generally use ''tu'' to speak with another child, whether known or not.
Two people who use ''tu'' in their private interactions may consciously switch back to ''vous'' in public, for example in a formal or professional environment, or in an artificially constructed situation (e.g. co-hosts of a television show), or simply to conceal the nature of their relationship from others. In some families, the traditional habit is followed: ''vous'' is used to address older family members; more rarely, children are taught to use ''vous'' to address their parents, and ''vous'' is sometimes even used between spouses.
The T-V distinction exists only in the singular in French. ''Vous'' is the second person plural pronoun in all situations.
Terminology:
★ ''tutoyer'' (verb), ''tutoiement'' (noun) — calling someone "''tu''"
★ ''vouvoyer'' (or rarely, ''vousoyer'', ''voussoyer''), ''vouvoiement'' (''vousoiement'', ''voussoiement'') — calling someone "''vous''"
★ ''faire schmolitz'' (
Swiss French) — making the transition from ''vouvoiement'' to ''tutoiement'', traditionally over a drink
Sources:
★
"Mastering the Unmasterable: A French Puzzle" Mary Blume, ''International Herald Tribune'',
February 19,
2000
★
"Dites-moi tu" Sophie Balbo, ''L'Hebdo'',
June 23,
2005
Belgian French
In French-speaking Belgium, usage is mostly identical to that in
Standard French. However,
linguistic interference from
Dutch and the
Walloon language[1] can influence the speech of those who have these as their first languages:
★
Flemings who are native-speakers of Dutch have a tendency when speaking French to use ''tu'' in as wide a range of contexts (both familar and formal) as they do the ''gij / ge'' of Dutch. A ''tu'' used in formal circumstances – which from a native French speaker would normally be taken as a sign of deliberate rudeness – will be "forgiven" when uttered by a native Dutch speaker (as identified by his or her accent).
★ In Walloon, the use of which tends, in any case, to be restricted mostly to "familiar" contexts, ''vos'' (=''vous'') is the general usage and is considered informal and friendly. ''Ti'' (=''tu''), on the other hand, is considered vulgar, and its use can be taken as an expression of an aggressive attitude towards the person addressed. This influence from Walloon affects the usage of ''tu'' and ''vous'' in the French spoken in Belgium, though more so among people accustomed to using Walloon as their everyday language. The influence of Standard French, particularly as exercised through the
mass media, is eroding this particularity amongst younger French-speakers.
Canadian French
Similarly to Danish,
Canadian dialects of French, including
Quebec French and
Acadian French, permit and expect a far broader usage of the familiar ''tu'' than in
Standard French. There are still circumstances where it is appropriate and expected to say ''vous'': in a formal interview (notably for a job), when addressing a person of very high rank (a judge, or a prime minister), when speaking to senior citizens, or when addressing customers. For a number of Francophones in Canada, ''vous'' sounds stilted or snobbish, and archaic. By no means is ''tu'' restricted to intimates or social inferiors. There is however an important minority of people, often those who call for a use of standard French in Quebec, who prefer to be addressed as ''vous''. At
Radio-Canada (the public broadcaster, often considered as establishing the normative objectives of standard French in Canada), the use of ''vous'' is widespread even between colleagues.
Finally, in familiar language, it is usual to use a "generic ''tu''" (cf. English
generic you) instead of "''on''", which is used solely as a first-person plural.
German
''Sie'' and ''du''
In
German, the respectful form is the same as the third person plural (''sie''), rather than the second person plural (which in German is ''ihr''). The
Scandinavian languages, along with (in a sense)
Italian, have adopted this German third person plural model. The second person sense is capitalized (''Sie'') in writing to avoid any ambiguity. Verbs used with this form of address are also identical to third person plural forms. In requests and demands, it is considered good manners to combine ''Sie'' not only with ''bitte'' (please) but also with the
subjunctive mood, for example: ''Könnten Sie bitte das Fenster schließen?'' (Would you (Sie) mind closing the window please?) instead of ''Schließen Sie bitte das Fenster!'' (Please close the window).
The corresponding informal German address is ''du''. The verbs ''duzen'' and ''siezen'' mean respectively "to call ''du''" and "to call ''Sie''" and the phrases ''per du'' or ''beim du'' mean "to be on du terms".
In general terms, ''Sie'' is used with persons who would be addressed in English with ''Mr.'' or ''Ms.'', while ''du'' is used as soon as one progresses to first-name terms. In internet chats and forums, however, Germans rarely use ''Sie'', although there are exceptions. Some people even go so far as to consider ''Sie'' an insulting form of address on the internet.
Generally it can be said that everyone up to the age of 16 can be addressed as ''du'' without problems. In most circumstances, adults should at first always be called ''Sie''. However there are exceptions: parents with small children, when talking to the parents of their own child's friends, normally switch very quickly to ''du''. Children and teenagers are expected to address all strangers as ''Sie''. But in sports clubs it may be considered overly formal if children say ''Sie'' to their adult trainers.
Usage varies in the German-speaking world when addressing a group containing both ''du'' and ''Sie'' persons from the speaker's point of view. Some speakers use the informal plural ''ihr'', others prefer the formal ''Sie'' and many, concerned that both pronouns might cause offence, prefer to use circumlocutions which avoid either pronoun.
In
Germany, an old but by no means extinct
custom (called ''Bruderschaft trinken'' (drinking brotherhood)) involves two (male) friends formally splitting a bottle of
wine or drinking a glass of
beer together to celebrate their deciding (mostly proposed by the elder or socially higher-standing of the two) to call one another ''du'' rather than ''Sie''. This custom has also been adopted among the Swiss-French of the Jura.
It is also a custom to propose the use of ''du'' rather than ''Sie'' by the opening sentence ''Ich heiße...'' followed by one's own first name. One accepts the proposal by replying with the same sentence. Should a person later forget that they have adopted ''du'', it is polite to remind them by saying, ''Wir waren doch per Du'' (We moved on to 'du' terms).
Historical predecessors: ''Ihr'' and ''Er/Sie''
''Ihr'', capitalized, was formerly used in addressing social superiors, unless more informal relations had been established. This form remains until today in some rural dialects as a respectful way of addressing elders.
''Er'' (male) or ''Sie'' (female), capitalized, was similarly used in the second person to address a social inferior, as a master addressing a servant, but is now obsolete. ''Ihr'' is also used in historical fiction (such as novels, plays, movies) when addressing royalty and similar persons.
Both ''Ihr'' and ''Er/Sie'' go by a similar grammar rule pertaining to the verb used with these addresses as modern ''Sie''. The dated capitalized address ''Ihr'' demands the same verb form as the modern second person plural pronoun ''ihr'', and dated ''Er/Sie'' demands the same verb form as the modern third person singular ''er'' and ''sie''.
Greek
In Greek, ''sy'' () was originally the singular, and ''hymeis'' () the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar.
Paul addressed King
Agrippa II as ''sy'' (
Acts 26:2). Later, ''hymeis'' and ''hēmeis'' ("we") became too close in pronunciation, and a new plural ''eseis'' () was invented. The ''e'' () of ''esy'' () is a euphonic prefix.
In modern Greek εσείς (esis, second person plural) with second person plural verb conjugation is used as the formal counterpart of εσύ (esi, second person singular) when talking to strangers and elders. Although in everyday life it is somehow common to speak to strangers of your age or younger than you using the singular pronoun. Also the informal second person singular is used even with older people you are acquainted with.
Since the formal εσείς (esis) starts getting less common outside schools and workplaces, many people often do not know which form to use (because using a formal version might sound too preppy even to an elder and using the informal version might sound inappropriate to some strangers) and thus prefer to substitute verbs with nouns (avoiding the dilemma) until enough information on the counterpart's intentions is gathered in order to use either the formal or the informal second person pronoun and verb conjugation.
Hebrew
In
Hebrew, there is a T-V distinction used in very formal speech only and only to people of highest authority eg lawyers addressing judges, or when speaking to rabbis. The 2nd person singular "ata" (masculine) or "at" (feminine) is the usual form of address. The formal form of address when speaking to a person of highest authority is the 3rd person singular using the person's title without the use of the pronoun. Thus a rabbi could be asked: "kvod harav yirtse lekhol" (literally, "the honourable rabbi would like to eat") or a judge told: "kvod hashofet dan babaqasha sheli" ("his honour the judge is dealing with my application").
Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu)
In both versions of
Hindustani, there are three levels of honorifics:
★ 'आप آپ' āp/[αːp]: Formal and respectable form for ''you''. Used in all formal settings and speaking to persons who are senior in job or age. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of "you people" (आप लोग آپ لوگ ''āp log'')) or "you all" (आप सब آپ سب ''āp sab'').
★ 'तुम تُم' tum/[tum]: Informal form of ''you''. Used in all informal settings and speaking to persons who are junior in job or age. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of "you people" (तुम लोग تُم لوگ ''tum log'') or "you all" (तुम सब تُم سب ''tum sab'').
★ 'तू تُو' tū/[tuː]: Extremely informal form of ''you'', as ''thou''. Strictly singular, its plural form would be तुम تُم ''tum''. Inappropriate use of this form — i.e. other than in addressing children, very close friends, or in poetic language (either with God or with lovers) — risks being perceived as offensive in Pakistan or India.
Hungarian
Hungarian provides numerous, often subtle means of T-V distinction:
The use of the second-person conjugation with the pronoun ''te'' (plural ''ti'') is the most informal mode. As in many other European languages, it is used within families, among children, lovers, close friends, (nowadays often) among coworkers, and in some
communities, suggesting an idea of brotherhood. Adults unilaterally address children this way, and it is also the form used in addressing God, animals, and objects or ideas. Sociologically, the use of this form is widening. Whereas traditionally the switch to ''te'' is often a symbolic milestone between people, sometimes sealed by drinking a glass of wine together ("pertu"), today people under the age of about 30 will often mutually adopt ''te'' automatically in informal situations. A notable example is the Internet: strangers meeting online use the informal forms of address virtually exclusively, regardless of age or status differences. (A slang term for someone using formal speech in, for example, a chat room is an "Inönrnet", which is "te", informal "you", replaced with "Ön", formal "you", in the word "Internet".)
IKEA (or rather, its Hungarian team) was noted and practically unique in its choice of this way of addressing people in Hungary in its brochures; reactions were mixed.
Nevertheless, formal forms of address are alive and well in Hungarian:
★ The third-person verb conjugation is the primary basis of formal address. The choice of which ''pronoun'' to use, however, is fraught with difficulty (and indeed a common solution when in doubt is to simply avoid using any pronoun at all).
★
★ The pronoun ''maga'' (plural ''maguk''), for instance, is considered the basic formal equivalent of "you", but may not be used indiscriminately, as it tends to imply an existing or desired personal acquaintance. (It would not, for instance, ordinarily be used in a conversation where the relative social roles are predominantly important – say, between professor and student.) Typical situations where ''maga'' might be used are, e.g., fairly distant relatives, neighbours, fellow-travellers on the train, or at the hairdresser's. If one already knows these people, they may even take offence if one were to address them more formally. On the other hand, some urbanites tend to avoid ''maga'', finding it too rural, old-fashioned, offensive or even intimate.
★
★ ''Ön'' (plural ''Önök'') is the formal, official and impersonal "you". It is the form used when people take part in a situation merely as representatives of
social roles, where personal acquaintance is not a factor. It is thus used in institutions, business, bureaucracy, advertisements, by broadcasters, by shopkeepers to their customers, and whenever one wishes to maintain one's distance. It is less typical of rural areas or small towns, more typical of cities.
★
★ Other pronouns are nowadays rare, restricted to rural, jocular, dialect, or old-fashioned speech. Such are, for instance, ''kend'' and ''kegyed''.
★
★ There is a wide spectrum of third-person address that avoids the above pronouns entirely, preferring to substitute various combinations of the addressed's names and/or titles. Thus, for instance, a university student might ask ''mit gondol X. tanár úr?'' ("what does Professor X. think?", meant for the addressee) rather than using the insufficiently formal ''maga'' or the overly impersonal ''Ön''. (Note that it's possible because the formal second-person conjugation of verbs is the same as the third-person conjugation.)
★ Finally, the
auxiliary verb ''tetszik'' (lit. "it pleases [you]") is an indirect alternative (or, perhaps, supplement) to direct address with the third or even second person. It is very polite (sometimes seen as over-polite) but generally speaking not as formal as the ''Ön/maga'' form. Children usually address adults outside their family this way. Adults may address more distant relatives,
housekeepers and older persons using this form, and some men habitually address older or younger women this way (this is slightly old-fashioned).
| | Example: "you" in the nominative
"Will you be leaving tomorrow?" | Example: "you" in the accusative
"I saw you yesterday on TV." |
|---|
| Te | ''(Te) holnap utazol el?'' | ''Láttalak tegnap a tévében.'' |
|---|---|---|
| Maga | ''(Maga)'' | ''holnap utazik el?'' | ''Láttam'' | ''magát'' | ''tegnap a tévében.'' |
|---|---|---|
| Ön | ''(Ön)'' | ''önt'' |
|---|
| ∅ | ''Tanár úr''
★ | ''Tanár urat''
★ |
|---|
| Tetszik | ''Holnap tetszik elutazni?'' | ''Láttam tegnap Mari nénit
★
★ a tévében.''
OR ''Láttam magát tegnap a tévében.'' |
|---|
:
★ "Tanár úr" is a form of addressing for professors (cf. "Sir"); "tanár urat" is the accusative. Other forms of addressing are also possible, so as to avoid specifying the ''maga'' and ''ön'' pronouns.
:
★
★ "Mari nénit" is an example name in the accusative (cf. "Aunt Mary").
Icelandic
In modern
Icelandic the formal second person pronoun is not in use, that goes for both the singular form and the plural. They are only used on rare occasions when one intends to be extremely formal or when one wants to treat another person with contempt, possible expressing that the person one is talking to is indeed not of great significance or importance. The formal pronouns are sometimes used in translations from a language that adheres them.
Italian
In
Italian the formal second person singular pronoun is ''lei'', which means "her" (as
accusative form of "she"). It is often capitalized as a sign of respect, particularly in administrative or business correspondence. It is also possible to use ''Ella'' as a very polite alternative, but this is very rarely used and is perceived as archaic or snobbish, since in Italian ''egli'' ("he"), ''essi'' ("they") and especially ''ella'' ("she") have fallen out of common use, being replaced by ''lui'' ("him"), ''loro'' ("them") and ''lei'' ("her"). ''Lei'' and the plural form ''Loro'' may have resulted from
German influence, where both would be translated as ''Sie'', although confusingly, German ''Sie'' always uses plural verb conjugation even when a singular sense is used, making the correspondence inexact.
''Lei'' is nowadays generally concorded with the gender of the addressee; it might actually not be present in sentences as Italian is not subject-compulsory, and is then understood by the verb being conjugated in the third person.
★ "Have you ever been in Rome?"
★
★ ''"Lei è mai stato a Roma?"'' (''-o'': to a male)
★
★ ''"Lei è mai stata a Roma?"'' (''-a'': to a female. But this can also be addressed to a male, in a very formal style).
The polite plural form ''Loro'' ("them") is used rarely, as ''voi'' is often perceived already as polite enough.
''Lei'' is normally used in formal settings, or with strangers, and it is used reciprocally between adults: the usage may not be reciprocal when young people address older strangers or otherwise respected people. Currently, people tend to address strangers of their own age using the informal ''tu'' until about thirty years of age.
''Voi'' ("ye") might be used by some speakers instead of ''lei'', especially in Southern Italy, but it sounds old-fashioned.
History
At the beginning of its history, in the
Middle Ages, the Italian language had a ''tu/voi'' distinction of formality, as with other
Romance languages; in his ''
Divine Comedy'' (begun in 1307),
Dante normally uses ''tu'' when talking to the people he meets, but addresses them with ''voi'' when he means to show particular respect, for example to his former teacher (''"Siete voi qui, ser Brunetto?"'').
During the
Renaissance began the use of ''lei'' as a polite pronoun, with some subsequent influence from
Spanish and
German; the origin of ''lei'' is due to expressions as "Your Lordship/Eminence/Majesty/Holiness/...", where all of these nouns were feminine in gender (''Vostra Signoria/Eminenza/Maestà/Santità/...'') and referred to in the third person singular. For a few centuries (possibly from the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century) there was a three-pronoun system in use, with ''tu/voi/lei'' employed with a growing degree of formality; this was very well exemplified in
Manzoni's novel ''
The Betrothed'' (written in 1840-42 and set in 1628-30), where the characters talk using all three pronouns: the usage was often not reciprocal, with several combinations based on age and social status.
In 1938, under
Fascist rule, the use of ''lei'' was banned on
nationalistic grounds, since the use of ''voi'' was thought of as "more Italian"; the ban lasted only for a few years, until the end of World War II, and left little trace. However, in some parts of Italy, particularly in Southern Italy, ''voi'' had always been preferred as the polite form and continued to be used regionally, while ''lei'' definitely prevailed as the standard V-form.
★ Luca Serianni in ''
La Crusca per voi'' (no. 20, April 2000)
Japanese
In
Japanese, as in Vietnamese, kinship terms, titles, or names are commonly used instead of first-, second- or third-person pronouns. As in Korean, there are several levels of politeness regarding to social hierarchy, and polite language encompasses not only pronouns, but verb endings and vocabulary as well. (See the articles
Japanese pronouns and
Japanese honorifics for more information.)
Korean
Much like Japanese, the
Korean language has complex gradations. It uses honorifics and no less than seven speech levels, each with a singular/plural distinction, making for a total of 14 basic verb stems. Nevertheless, most levels have all but disappeared from everyday language, so one can simplify this into the basic distinction between ''plain'' and ''polite'' conjugations of verbs and adjectives. In general, the plain form is used when speaking to family, close friends, and social inferiors, and the polite form otherwise. When two Korean-speaking strangers meet where none is the obvious social superior, both use the polite form; when it is determined that one or both can switch to the plain form, one often asks for permission for this switch. The phrase used to describe this is ''mareul nota'' (literally “to release language”). In Korean, the polite form is called ''jondaenmal'' and the plain form is called ''yesanmal'' or ''banmal''. In contrast to the neutral term ''yesanmal'', ''banmal'' (literally “half speech”) often has a rather negative connotation, referring for instance to the plain form that one may deliberately use to provoke someone who should be addressed in the polite form.
There is a similar phenomenon called ''nopimmal'', which is honorific speech triggered not by the addressee but by the content of an expression. It is used independently of the speech levels. For example, in ''-hasimnida'' “do(es) …”, the speaker uses the infix ''-si-'' to honour the subject of the sentence and the ending ''-mnida'' to express courtesy or politeness (or simply his distance) towards the addressee. As the subject of the sentence and the addressee don't have to be the same person both forms can be mixed. The speaker can honour a higher person he's talking about with the infix ''-si-'' while talking to a friend who is addressed in the informal ''banmal''.
Malay
As there are many additions to the vocabulary of the Malay language, Standard Malay today is a result of many years of various refinements (the Malay language was never, and is still not, taught in a strictly prescriptive manner). The formal "anda" is most probably derived from the Japanese "anta" (あんた), or "anata" (あなた).
Norwegian (bokmål)
In Norwegian, the use of the polite form ''De'' is today all but extinct. Norwegians almost exclusively use ''du'' in their daily life. ''De'' may still be used in some very formal situations or when talking to elderly people, but may be considered rude in other settings. ''De'' can also be found in written works, theatrical plays and translations where an impression of formality must be retained.
[However, it should be mentioned that Norwegians also generally refer to one another by first name only unless the person is better known by their full or last name only, putting this weakening of the courteous pronoun into a general pattern of declining use of polite speech.
Example: A student might address his professor John Doe, not as "Mr./Dr. Doe", but as "John", but would refer to the president of the US as "Bush", not "George".
Nicknames are not very common.]
Portuguese
In very broad terms, and depending on the country or region, Portuguese ''tu'', ''você'' (both meaning singular "you") and ''vocês'' (plural "you") are used in informal situations, while in formal contexts ''o senhor'', ''a senhora'', ''os senhores'' and ''as senhoras'', particularly in Brazil. (masculine singular, feminine singular, masculine plural, and feminine plural "you", respectively) are preferred. However, there is considerable regional variation in the use of these terms, and more specific
forms of address are sometimes employed.
Historically, ''você'' derives from ''vossa mercê'' ("your mercy" or "your grace") via the intermediate forms ''vossemecê'' and ''vosmecê''; compare with the derivation of Spanish ''usted'' from ''vuestra merced''. For that reason, ''você'' and ''vocês'' require verbs conjugated in the 3rd. person, rather than the 2nd. person.
The second person plural pronoun ''vós'', from Latin ''vos'', has fallen into disuse in all but a few regional dialects of Northern Portugal, where it expresses an intermediate degree of formality between ''tu'' and ''você(s)''. Its use is kept as an archaism in literature (historical setting),
prayer (when addressing a
deity) or exaggerated (incl. mock) ceremonial.
Romanian
Romanian ''dumneavoastră'' when used for the second-person singular formal takes plural verbs but singular adjectives, similar to French ''vous''. It is used roughly in the same manner as in Continental French and shows no signs of disappearing. It is also used as a more formal ''voi''. It originates from ''domnia voastră'' - your lordship. As it happens with all subjective pronouns ''dumneavoastră'' is many times omitted from sentences, its use being implied by verbs in the second person plural form.
The form ''dumneata'' (originating from ''domnia ta'' - thy lordship) is less distant than ''dumneavoastră'' and somewhat midway between ''tu'' and ''dumneavoastră''. The verb is conjugated, as for ''tu'', in the second person singular form. ''Dumneata'' is favored by older people towards younger people and peers. Its use is gradually declining. A even more colloquial form of ''dumneata'' is ''mata''.
Russian
Russian distinguishes between familiar '''ty''' (''ты'') and respectful '''Vy''' (''Вы''), which is also used familiar address for several people. (Respectful ''Vy'' may be capitalized, while plural ''vy'' is not.) Generally, ''ty'' is used among friends and relatives, but the usage depends not only on the closeness of the relationship but also on age and the formality of the situation (e.g., work meeting vs. a party). Children always use ''ty'' to address each other and are addressed in this way by adults but are taught to address adults with ''vy''. Younger adults typically also address older adults outside the family as ''vy'' regardless of intimacy, and may be addressed as ''ty'' in return. When talking to each other young people often start with the formal ''vy'' when talking to each other but may transition to ''ty'' very quickly in an informal situation. Among older people ''ty'' is often reserved for closer acquaintances. Unless there is a substantial difference in age, the choice of the form is symmetric: if A uses ''ty'' to address B, then B also uses ''ty'' to address A. While people may transition quickly from ''vy'' to ''ty'', such transition presumes mutual agreement. Use of ''ty'' without consent of the other person is likely to be viewed as poor conduct or even as an insult, particularly if the other party maintains using ''vy''.
Historically, the rules have been in favor of more formal usage; as late as the 19th century, it was accepted in many circles (generally among the more educated) that ''vy'' is to be used between close friends, between husband and wife, and when addressing one's parents (but not one's children), all of which situations today would strongly call for using ''ty''.
The choice between ''ty'' and ''vy'' is closely related, yet sometimes different, from the choice of the addressing format - that is, the selection from the first name,
patronymics, last name, and the title to be used when addressing the person. Normally, ''ty'' is associated with the informal addressing by first name only (or, even more informally, by the patronymics only), whereas ''vy'' is associated with the more formal addressing format of using the first name together with patronymics (roughly analogous to "title followed by last name" in English) or the last name alone or with a title (the last name is almost never used together with either of the other two names to ''address'' someone, although such combinations are routinely used to ''introduce'' or ''mention'' someone). However, sometimes an informal addressing scheme is used with ''vy'', and conversely, a more formal scheme with ''ty''. The former is sometimes associated with the
intelligentsia, while the latter may be associated with the less educated people, particularly those assuming positions of some influence under the
Communist Party of the USSR.
Scottish Gaelic
The informal form of the second-person singular in
Scottish Gaelic is ''thu'' (emphatic: ''thusa''), used when addressing a person the speaker knows well, or when addressing a person younger or relatively the same age as the speaker. When addressing a superior, an elder, or a stranger, or in conducting business, the form ''sibh'' (emphatic: ''sibhse'') is used. (''Sibh'' is also the second-person plural). This distinction carries over into
prepositional pronouns: for instance, ''agad'' and ''agaibh'' (at you), ''riut'' and ''ruibh'' (with you), ''umad'' and ''umaibh'' (about you), etc.
Spanish
In
Spanish, the respectful form requires verbs to be conjugated in the third
person singular; this is because the form ''usted'' evolved from the title ''vuestra merced'' (your grace) which naturally took the third person. Compare Portuguese ''você''. In some cases, if talking to a younger person, elder people tend to use the form ''usted'' combining it with the first name, or combining it with ''Don'' (e.g. ''Don Miguel''), if the other person is older.
Close friends, of course, are ''tú'' and venerable old ladies are ''usted'', but there is a wide grey area in the middle. Even that is not universally true: in the Spanish dialects of some parts of Latin America (for example, in many parts of
Colombia and
Guatemala, as well as
Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico), ''tú'' is almost never used, not even with close friends or relatives, which are ''usted''. The use of ''tú'' is more common in Mexico and California: advertisements often use ''tú'' or its possessive ''tu'', for example "En tu canal 73" (lit. "On your channel 73"). In Argentina, where
Rioplatense Spanish is very common, the informal pronoun ''tú'' is replaced with ''vos'', which is used rather indiscriminately (see
voseo).
In the plural, Spanish presents the T-form ''vosotros'' and the V-form ''ustedes'', which uses verbs in the third person plural. However, only Northern Spain has retained this distinction, while in the Canaries and Latin America, ''ustedes'' is the only form used in all contexts. In Andalusia and Estremadura, ''ustedes'' is used as well, but along with verb forms corresponding to ''vosotros'' in standard European Spanish.
Swedish
In Swedish there has been a marked difference between usage in
Finland-Swedish compared to in
Sweden. While the form ''Ni'' (noted as formal above) has remained the common respectful address in Finland-Swedish, it was until the 1960s considered somewhat careless, bullying or rude in Sweden, where addressing in 3rd
person with repetition of ''name and title'' was considered proper and respectful. After that the usage swiftly changed in Sweden, and the 2nd person ''du'' (noted as informal above) came to dominate totally, until recently when in the late 1990s a usage resembling that in Finnish or Finland-Swedish has become popular among the youngest adults. It is also now common to see ''Du'' capitalized in places where the formal ''Ni'' would have been used before, such as in printed instructions or on signs.
Today, ''Ni'' starts to become more often used. In the late 90s, ''Ni'' was all but extinct, now businesspartners often say ''Ni'' again; everyone estimated older than 35 might also be addressed as ''Ni'' in shops and restaurants.
Turkish
In contemporary
Turkish, T-V distinction is strong. Friends and family members speak to one another using the second singular person "sen" as well as adults use "sen" to address minors. In formal situations (meeting people first time, business, customer-clerk, colleagues) second plural "siz" is used widely. In very formal situations double plural second person "sizler" may be used to refer to a very respected person. Rarely, third plural conjugation of the verb (but not the pronoun) may be used to emphasize utmost respect. In imperative, there are three forms: second singular person for informal, 2nd plural person for formal and double plural 2nd person for very formal situations: "gel" (second singular, informal), "gelin" (second plural, formal), "geliniz" (double second plural, very formal). The very formal forms are not frequently used.
Ubykh
In the extinct
Ubykh language, the T-V distinction was most notable between a man and his mother-in-law, where the plural form '' supplanted the singular '' very frequently, possibly under the influence of
Turkish. The distinction was upheld less frequently in other relationships, but did still occur.
Uyghur
The
Uyghur language is notable for using four different forms, to distinguish both singular and plural in both formal and informal registers. The informal plural ''silär'' originated as a contraction of ''sizlär'', which uses a regular plural ending. In Old Turkic, as still in modern Turkish, ''siz'' was the original second-person plural. However, in modern Uyghur ''siz'' has become restricted to the formal singular, requiring the plural suffix -''lär'' for the plurals.
''Siz'' as the formal singular pronoun is characteristic of Ürümchi dialect, which is the Uyghur literary standard. In Turfan they say ''sili'' and in Kashgar dialect, ''özlär''. ''Sili'' is also used in other areas sometimes, while in literary Uyghur ''özlär'' as a singular pronoun is considered a "hyperdeferential" level of respect; the deferential plural form is ''härqaysiliri''.
Vietnamese
Main articles: Vietnamese pronouns
Vietnamese does not have a clear concept of pronouns. Any noun can be used to refer to people, especially kinship terms. Pronouns are sometimes not needed in a normal conversation, as the speaker can always refer to him/herself, the audience, and others directly by name, which might seem strange to English speakers. The nouns used to refer to people can reveal not only the level of formality, but also the social relationship between the speaker and the person being referred to, differences in age, and even the attitude of the speaker toward the person being referred to.
There is an informal second-person pronoun: ''mày''. This term is always condescending and should only be used with someone who is both familiar with and subordinate to the speaker. Young people also utilize it frequently.
Related verbs, nouns and pronouns
Some languages have a verb to describe the fact of using either a ''T'' or a ''V'' form. Some also have a related noun or pronoun.
| T verb | V verb | T noun | V noun |
|---|
| Catalan | ''tutejar/tractar de tú/vós'' | ''tractar de vostè'' | | |
| Czech | ''tykat'' | ''vykat'' | ''tykání'' | ''vykání'' |
| Danish | ''dutte'' | | | |
| Dutch | ''tutoyeren'', ''jij/jouwen'' | ''vouvoyeren'' | | |
| Esperanto | ''ciumi'', ''"ci"-diri'' |
★ ''viumi'', ''"vi"-diri'' | ''ciumado'' | ''viumado'' |
| Finnish | ''sinutella'' | ''teititellä'' | ''sinuttelu'' | ''teitittely'' |
| French | ''tutoyer'' | ''vouvoyer'' | ''tutoiement'' | ''vouvoiement'' |
| German | ''duzen'' | ''siezen'' | ''Duzen'' | ''Siezen'' |
| Hungarian | ''tegez'' | ''magáz'' | ''tegezés'' | ''magázás'' |
| Italian | ''dare del tu'' | ''dare del Lei'' | | |
| Japanese | | | | ''keigo'' (敬語) |
| Korean | ''mareul nota''; ''banmalhada'' | | | |
| Lithuanian | ''tujinti'' | | ''tujinimas | |
| Polish | ''mówić per ty''
''tykać'' (humorous) | ''mówić per pan/pani'' | ''mówienie per ty'' | ''mówienie per pan/pani'' |
| Portuguese | ''tutear'', ''tratar por "tu"'' | ''vosear'', ''tratar por "vós"'' | ''tuteio'', ''tratamento por "tu"'' | ''tratamento por "vós"'' |
| Romanian | ''a tutui'' | ''a spune „dumneavoastră”'' | ''tutuire'' | ''plural de politeţe'' |
| Russian | ''тыкать (tykat')'' | ''выкать (vykat')'' | ''тыканье (tykanie)'' | ''выканье (vykanie)'' |
| Serbian | ''не персирати (ne persirati)'',
''бити на ти (biti na ti)'' | ''персирати (persirati)'',
''бити на ви (biti na vi)'' | ''неперсирање (nepersiranje)'' | ''персирање (persiranje)'' |
| Slovak | ''tykať'' | ''vykať'' | ''tykanie'' | ''vykanie'' |
| Slovene | ''tikati'' | ''vikati'' | ''tikanje'' | ''vikanje'' |
| Spanish | ''tutear'' | ''tratar de usted'' | ''tuteo'' | |
| Swedish | ''dua'' | ''nia'' | ''duande'' | ''niande'' |
| Turkish | ''senli benli olmak/konuşmak'' | ''sizli bizli olmak/konuşmak'' | ''senli benli olmak/konuşmak)'' | ''sizli bizli olma/konuşmak'' |
| Ukrainian | ''тикати (tykaty)'' | ''викати (vykaty)'' | ''тикання (tykannia)'' | ''викання (vykannia)'' |
| Welsh | ''tydïo'' | | | |
References
★ Brown, R. and A. Gilman (1960) "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity" in ''American Anthropologist'' 4 (6): 24-39. Also found in ''Language and Social Context: Selected Readings,'' ed. by P. Giglioli (1972), ISBN 0-140-13303-8, pp. 252-282.
★
On-line Middle English grammar (
PDF file)
★ ''Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, The''. New York, Oxford University Press, 1971.
Notes
1. Grammaire wallonne en ligne - Li waibe del croejhete walone
See also
★
Honorific
★
Hypocoristic
★
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