(Redirected from Swahili)
'Swahili' (also called 'Kiswahili';
see below for derivation) is a
Bantu language. It is the most widely spoken language of sub-Saharan Africa. Although only 5-10 million people speak it as their native language
[2], Swahili is somewhat of a Southeast African
lingua franca, being spoken by around 80 million speakers.
Swahili is the
mother tongue of the
Swahili people (or ''Waswahili'') who inhabit several large stretches of the Indian Ocean coastlines from southern
Somalia as far south as
Mozambique's border region with Tanzania.
[3] Swahili has become a
lingua franca in much of East Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and is now the only African language among the official working languages of the
African Union. Swahili is also taught in the major universities in the world, and several international media outlets, such as the
BBC,
Voice of America and
Xinhua have Swahili programs.
Overview
Swahili, spoken natively by various groups traditionally inhabiting about 1,500 miles of the East African coastline, has become a second language spoken by tens of millions in three countries, Tanzania, Kenya, and Congo (DCR), where it is an official or national language. The neighboring nation of
Uganda made Swahili a required subject in primary schools in 1992 — although this mandate has not been well implemented — and declared it an official language in 2005. Swahili, or other closely related languages, is also used by relatively small numbers of people in Burundi, Rwanda, Mozambique, Somalia, and Zambia, and nearly the entire population of the Comoros.
In the Guthrie nongenetic classification of Bantu languages, Swahili is included under Bantoid/Southern/Narrow Bantu/Central/G.
The name 'Kiswahili' comes from the plural of the
Arabic word ''sahel'' ساحل: ''sawahil'' سواحل meaning "boundary" or "coast" (used as an adjective to mean "coastal dwellers" or, by adding 'ki-' ["language"] to mean "coastal language"). (The word "
sahel" is also used for the border zone of the
Sahara ("desert")). The incorporation of the final "i" is likely to be the ''
nisba'' in Arabic (''of the coast'' سواحلي), although some state it is for phonetic reasons.
One of the earliest known documents in Swahili is an
epic poem in the
Arabic script titled
Utendi wa Tambuka ("The History of Tambuka"); it is dated
1728. The
Latin alphabet has since become standard under the influence of European colonial powers.
Although originally written in Arabic script, Swahili orthography is now based on the Latin alphabet that was introduced by Christian missionaries and colonial administrators.
Name
"Kiswahili" is the Swahili word for the Swahili language, and this is also sometimes used in English. 'Ki-' is a prefix attached to nouns of the noun class that includes languages (see Noun classes below). 'Kiswahili' refers to the 'Swahili Language'; 'Waswahili' refers to the people of the 'Swahili Coast'; and 'Swahili' refers to the 'Culture' of the Swahili People. (A common colloquialism, 'Uswahili', has been used for years in Tanzania as a derogatory term for "base" behaviour or attitude. Its relationship to actual Swahili culture is unclear and somewhat controversial.) See Bantu languages for a more detailed discussion of the grammar of nouns.
Sounds
Swahili is unusual among sub-Saharan languages in having lost the feature of lexical tone (with the exception of the Mijikenda dialect group that includes the numerically important Mvita dialect, the dialect of Kenya's second city, the Indian Ocean port of Mombasa).
Vowels
Standard Swahili has five vowel phonemes: , , , , and . They are very similar to the vowels of Spanish and Italian, though stands between and in those languages. Vowels are never reduced, regardless of stress. The vowels are pronounced as follows:
★ is pronounced like the "a" in ''father''
★ is pronounced like the "e" in ''bed''
★ is pronounced like the "i" in ''ski''
★ is pronounced like the first part of the "o" in American English ''home'', or like a tenser version of "o" in British English "lot"
★ is pronounced between the "u" in ''rude'' and the "o" in ''rote''.
Swahili has no diphthongs; in vowel combinations, each vowel is pronounced separately. Therefore the Swahili word for "leopard", ''chui'', is pronounced , with hiatus.
Consonants
Notes:
★ The nasal stops are pronounced as separate syllables when they appear before a plosive ''(mtoto'' "child", ''nilimpiga'' "I hit him"), and prenasalized stops are decomposed into two syllables when the word would otherwise have one ''(mbwa'' "dog"). However, elsewhere this doesn't happen: ''ndizi'' "banana" has two syllables, , as does ''nenda'' (not ) "go".
★ The fricatives in parentheses, ''th dh kh gh,'' are borrowed from Arabic. Many Swahili speakers pronounce them as , respectively.
★ Swahili orthography does not distinguish aspirate from tenuis consonants. When nouns in the N-class begin with plosives, they are aspirated ''(tembo'' "palm wine", but ''tembo'' "elephant") in some dialects. Otherwise aspirate consonants are not common.
★ Swahili ''l'' and ''r'' are confounded by many speakers, and are often both realized as
Noun classes
In common with all Bantu languages, Swahili grammar arranges nouns into a number of classes. The ancestral system had 22 classes, counting singular and plural as distinct according to the Meinhof system, with most Bantu languages sharing at least ten of these. Swahili employs sixteen: six classes that usually indicate singular nouns, five classes that usually indicate plural nouns, a class for abstract nouns, a class for verbal infinitives used as nouns, and three classes to indicate location.
| class | nominal
prefix | example | translation |
|---|
| '1' | m- | mtu | ''person'' |
| '2' | wa- | watu | ''persons'' |
| '3' | m- | mti | ''tree'' |
| '4' | mi- | miti | ''trees'' |
| '5' | Ø/ji- | jicho | ''eye'' |
| '6' | ma- | macho | ''eyes'' |
| '7' | ki- | kisu | ''knife'' |
| '8' | vi- | visu | ''knives'' |
| '9' | Ø/n- | ndoto | ''dream'' |
| '10' | Ø/n- | ndoto | ''dreams'' |
| '11' | u- | uani | ''backyard'' |
| '14' | u- | utoto | ''childhood'' |
Nouns beginning with ''m-'' in the singular and ''wa-'' in the plural denote animate beings, especially people. Examples are ''mtu'', meaning 'person' (plural ''watu''), and ''mdudu'', meaning 'insect' (plural ''wadudu''). A class with ''m-'' in the singular but ''mi-'' in the plural often denotes plants, such as ''mti'' 'tree', ''miti'' trees. The infinitive of verbs begins with ''ku-'', e.g. ''kusoma'' 'to read'. Other classes are harder to categorize. Singulars beginning in ''ki-'' take plurals in ''vi-''; they often refer to hand tools and other artifacts. This ''ki-/vi-'' alteration even applies to foreign words where the ''ki-'' was originally part of the root, so ''vitabu'' "books" from ''kitabu'' "book" (from Arabic ''kitāb'' "book"). This class also contains languages (such as the name of the language ''Kiswahili''), and diminutives, which had been a separate class in earlier stages of Bantu. Words beginning with ''u-'' are often abstract, with no plural, e.g. ''utoto'' 'childhood'.
A fifth class begins with ''n-'' or ''m-'' or nothing, and its plural is the same. Another class has ''ji-'' or no prefix in the singular, and takes ''ma-'' in the plural; this class is often used for augmentatives. When the noun itself does not make clear which class it belongs to, its concords do. Adjectives and numerals commonly take the noun prefixes, and verbs take a different set of prefixes.
| 'singular' | | 'plural' |
| | ||
| 'm'toto | 'm'moja | 'a'nasoma | | 'wa'toto | 'wa'wili | 'wa'nasoma |
| child | one | is reading | | children | two | are reading |
| One child is reading | | Two children are reading |
| | ||
| 'ki'tabu | 'ki'moja | 'ki'natosha | | 'vi'tabu | 'vi'wili | 'vi'natosha |
| book | one | suffices | | books | two | suffice |
| One book is enough | | Two books are enough |
| | ||
| 'n'dizi | moja | 'i'natosha | | 'n'dizi | 'm'bili | 'zi'natosha |
| banana | one | suffices | | bananas | two | suffice |
| One banana is enough | | Two bananas are enough |
The same noun root can be used with different noun-class prefixes for derived meanings: human ''mtoto (watoto)'' "child (children)", abstract ''utoto'' "childhood", diminutive ''kitoto (vitoto)'' "infant(s)", augmentative ''toto (matoto)'' "big child (children)". Also vegetative ''mti (miti)'' "tree(s)", artifact ''kiti (viti)'' "stool(s)", augmentative ''jiti (majiti)'' "large tree", ''kijiti (vijiti)'' "stick(s)", ''ujiti (njiti)'' "tall slender tree".
Although the Swahili noun class system is technically grammatical gender, there is a difference from the grammatical gender of European languages: In Swahili, the class assignments of nouns is still largely semantically motivated, whereas the European systems are mostly arbitrary. However, the classes cannot be understood as simplistic categories such as 'people' or 'trees'. Rather, there are extensions of meaning, words similar to those extensions, and then extensions again from these. The end result is a semantic net that made sense at the time, and often still does make sense, but which can be confusing to a non-speaker.
Take the ''ki-/vi-'' class. Originally it was two separate genders: artifacts (Bantu class 7/8, utensils & hand tools mostly) and diminutives (Bantu class 12). Examples of the first are ''kisu'' "knife"; ''kiti'' "chair, stool", from ''mti'' "tree, wood"; ''chombo'' "vessel" (a contraction of ''ki-ombo''). Examples of the latter are ''kitoto'' "infant", from ''mtoto'' "child"; ''kitawi'' "frond", from ''tawi'' "branch"; and ''chumba'' (''ki-umba'') "room", from ''nyumba'' "house". It is the diminutive sense that has been furthest extended. An extension common to many languages is ''approximation'' and ''resemblance'' (having a 'little bit' of some characteristic, like ''-y'' or ''-ish'' is English). For example, there is ''kijani'' "green", from ''jani'' "leaf" (compare English 'leafy'), ''kichaka'' "bush" from ''chaka'' "clump", and ''kivuli'' "shadow" from ''uvuli'' "shade". A 'little bit' of a verb would be an instance of an action, and such ''instantiations'' (usually not very active ones) are also found: ''kifo'' "death", from the verb ''-fa'' "to die"; ''kiota'' "nest" from ''-ota'' "to brood"; ''chakula'' "food" from ''kula'' "to eat"; ''kivuko'' "a ford, a pass" from ''-vuka'' "to cross"; and ''kilimia'' "the Pleiades, from ''-limia'' "to farm with", from its role in guiding planting. A resemblance, or being a bit like something, implies marginal status in a category, so things that are marginal examples of their class may take the ''ki-/vi-'' prefixes. One example is ''chura'' (''ki-ura'') "frog", which is only half terrestrial and therefore marginal as an animal. This extension may account for disabilities as well: ''kilema'' "a cripple", ''kipofu'' "a blind person", ''kiziwi'' "a deaf person". Finally, diminutives often denote contempt, and contempt is sometimes expressed against things that are dangerous. This might be the historical explanation for ''kifaru'' "rhinoceros", ''kingugwa'' "spotted hyena", and ''kiboko'' "hippopotamus" (perhaps originally meaning "stubby legs").
Another class with broad semantic extension is the ''m-/mi-'' class (Bantu classes 3/4). This is often called the 'tree' class, because ''mti, miti'' "tree(s)" is the prototypical example, but that doesn't do it justice. Rather, it seems to cover vital entities which are neither human nor typical animals: trees and other plants, such as ''mwitu'' 'forest' and ''mtama'' 'millet' (and from there, things made from plants, like ''mkeka'' 'mat'); supernatural and natural forces, such as ''mwezi'' 'moon', ''mlima'' 'mountain', ''mto'' 'river'; active things, such as ''moto'' 'fire', including active body parts (''moyo'' 'heart', ''mkono'' 'hand, arm'); and human groups, which are vital but not themselves human, such as ''mji'' 'village', perhaps ''msikiti'' 'mosque', and, by analogy, ''mzinga'' 'beehive'. From the central idea of ''tree'', which is thin, tall, and spreading, comes an extension to other long or extended things or parts of things, such as ''mwavuli'' 'umbrella', ''moshi'' 'smoke', ''msumari'' 'nail'; and from activity there even come active instantiations of verbs, such as ''mfuo'' "hammering", from ''-fua'' "to hammer", or ''mlio'' "a sound", from ''-lia'' "to make a sound". Words may be connected to their class by more than one metaphor. For example, ''mkono'' is an active body part, and ''mto'' is an active natural force, but they are also both long and thin. Things with a trajectory, such as ''mpaka'' 'border' and ''mwendo'' 'journey', are classified with long thin things in many languages. This may be further extended to anything dealing with time, such as ''mwaka'' 'year' and perhaps ''mshahara'' 'wages'. Also, animals which are exceptional in some way and therefore don't fit easily in the other classes may be placed in this class.
The other classes have foundations that may at first seem similarly counterintuitive.[4]
Verb affixation
Swahili verbs consist of a root and a number of affixes (mostly prefixes) which can be attached to express grammatical persons, tense and many clauses that would require a conjunction in other languages (usually prefixes). As sometimes these affixes are sandwiched in between the root word and other affixes, some linguists have mistakenly assumed that Swahili uses infixes which is not the case.
Most verbs, the verbs of Bantu origin, will end in '-a'. This is vital to know for using the Imperative, or Command, conjugation form.
In most dictionaries, verbs are listed in their root form, for example ''-kata'' meaning 'to cut/chop'. In a simple sentence, prefixes for grammatical tense and person are added, e.g. ''ninakata''. Here ''ni-'' means 'I' and ''na-'' indicates present tense unless stated otherwise.
'''Verb Conjugation'''
:| ''ni-'' | ''-na-'' | ''kata'' |
| 1sg | DEF. TIME | cut/chop |
:'I am cutting (it)'
Now this sentence can be modified either by changing the subject prefix or the tense prefix, for example:
:| ''u-'' | ''-na-'' | ''kata'' |
| 2sg | DEF. TIME | cut/chop |
:'You are cutting'
:| ''u-'' | ''-me-'' | ''kata'' |
| 2sg | PERFECT | cut/chop |
:'You have cut'
The simple present is more complicated and learners often take some of the phrases for slang before they discover the proper usage. ''Nasoma'' means 'I read'. This is not short for ''ninasoma'' ('I am reading'). ''-A-'' is the indefinite (gnomic tense) prefix, used for example in generic statements such as "birds fly", and the vowel of the prefix ''ni-'' is assimilated. It may be simpler to consider these to be a single prefix:
| 1st PERSON | ''na-'' | ''twa-'' |
| 2nd PERSON | ''wa-'' | ''mwa-'' |
| 3rd PERSON | ''a-'' | ''wa-'' |
:| ''na-'' | ''soma'' |
| 1sg:GNOM | read |
:'I read'
:| ''mwa-'' | ''soma'' |
| 2pl:GNOM | read |
:'You (pl) read'
The complete list of basic subject prefixes is (for the ''m-/wa-'' or human class):
:| | SINGULAR | PLURAL |
| 1st PERSON | ''Ni-'' | ''Tu-'' |
| 2nd PERSON | ''U-'' | ''M-'' |
| 3rd PERSON | ''A-'' | ''Wa-'' |
The most common tense prefixes are:
:| ''a-'' | gnomic (indefinite time) |
| ''na-'' | definite time (often present progressive) |
| ''me-'' | perfect |
| ''li-'' | past |
| ''ta-'' | future |
| ''hu-'' | habitual |
However it is not only tenses in the sense the word is used in English that can be expressed by tense prefixes: conjunctions can be used in this context as well. For example ''ki-'' is the prefix for - the sentence "''nikinunua nyama wa mbuzi sokoni, nitapika leo''" means 'If I buy goat meat at the market, I'll cook today'. The conjunction 'if' in this sentence is simply represented by ''-ki''.
A third prefix can be added, the object prefix. It is placed just before the root and can either refer to a person, replace an object or emphasize a particular one, e.g.:
:| ''a-'' | ''na-'' | ''mw-'' | ''ona'' |
| 3sg | DEF.T. | 3sg.OBJ | see |
:'He (is) see(ing) him/her'
:| ''ni-'' | ''na-'' | ''mw-'' | ''ona'' | ''mtoto'' |
| 1sg | DEF.T. | 3sg.OBJ | see | child |
:'I (am) see(ing) ''the'' child'
There are not just prefixes. The root of a word is not really the one proposed by most dictionaries - the final vowel is an affix too. The suffix provided by dictionaries means . Other forms occur for instance with negation, e.g. ''sisomi'' (the "-" in this case means null morpheme, i.e. it represents an empty space):
:| ''si-'' | ''-'' | ''som-'' | ''-i'' |
| 1sg.NEG | TENSE | read | NEG |
:'I am not reading/ I don't read'
Other instances of this change of the final vowel include the conjunctive, where an ''-e'' is implemented. This goes only for Bantu verbs ending with ''-a'', ones derived from Arabic follow more complex rules.
Other suffixes, which once again look suspiciously like infixes, are placed before the end vowel, e.g.
:| ''wa-'' | ''na-'' | ''pig'' | ''-w'' | ''-a'' |
| 3pl | DEF.T. | hit | PASSIVE | IND. |
:'They are ''being'' hit'
Swahili time
'(East African) Swahili time' runs from dawn to dusk, rather than midnight to midday. 7am and 7pm are therefore both one o'clock while midnight and midday are six o'clock. Words such as ''asubuhi'' 'morning', ''jioni'' 'evening' and ''usiku'' 'night' can be used to demarcate periods of the day, for example:
★ ''saa moja asubuhi'' ('hour one morning') 7:00 a.m.
★ ''saa tisa usiku'' ('hour nine night') 3:00 a.m.
★ ''saa mbili usiku'' ('hour two evening') 8:00 p.m.
More specific time demarcations include ''adhuhuri'' 'early afternoon', ''alasiri'' 'late afternoon', ''usiku wa manane'' 'late night/past midnight', 'sunrise' ''macheo'' and sunset ''machweo''.
At certain times there is some overlap of terms used to demarcate day and night, e.g. 7:00 p.m. can be either ''saa moja jioni'' or ''saa moja usiku''.
Other relevant phrases include ''na robo'' 'and a quarter', ''na nusu'' 'and a half', ''kasarobo/kasorobo'' 'less a quarter', and ''dakika'' 'minute(s)':
★ ''saa nne na nusu'' ('hour four and a half') 10:30
★ ''saa tatu na dakika tano'' ('hour three and minutes five') five past nine
★ ''saa mbili kasorobo'' ('hour two less a quarter') 7:45
★ ''saa tatu kasoro'' ('a few minutes to nine')
Swahili time derives from the fact that the sun rises at around 6am and sets at around 6pm everyday in most of the areas where Swahili speakers reside.
== Dialects of Swahili and languages closely related to Swahili[5] ==
Dialects of Swahili
Modern standard Swahili is often considered to be based on ''Kiunguja'', the dialect spoken in Zanzibar town, whereas its linguistic basis is thought to have originated from ''Kingozi'', the language of the inhabitants of the ancient town of "Ngozi" in Burundi.
. There are numerous local dialects of Swahili, including the following.[6]
★ ''Kiunguja'': spoken in Zanzibar town and environs on Zanzibar island. Other dialects occupy the bulk of the island.
★ ''Kitumbatu'' and ''Kimakunduchi'': the countryside dialects of the island of Zanzibar. Kimakunduchi is a recent renaming of "Kihadimu"; the old name means "serf", hence it is considered pejorative.
★ ''Kimrima'': spoken around Pangani, Vanga, Dar es Salaam, Rufiji and Mafia Island.
★ ''Kimgao'': spoken around Kilwa and to the south.
★ ''Kipemba'': local dialect of the island of Pemba.
★ ''Mijikenda'', a group of dialects spoken in and around Mvita island. Includes ''Kimvita'', the other major dialect alongside Kiunguja.
★ ''Kingare'': subdialect of the Mombasa area.
★ ''Chijomvu'': subdialect of the Mombasa area.
★ ''Chi-Chifundi'': dialect of the southern Kenya coast.
★ ''Kivumba'': dialect of the southern Kenya coast.
★ ''Kiamu'': spoken in and around the island of Lamu (Amu).
★ ''Kingozi'': this is a special case as it was the language of the inhabitants of the ancient town of "Ngozi" in Burundi and is perhaps the basis of the Swahili language.
★ ''Sheng'': a sort of street slang, this is a blend of Swahili, English, and some ethnic languages spoken in and around Nairobi in informal settings. Sheng originated in the Nairobi slums and is considered fashionable and cosmopolitan among a growing segment of the population.
Languages similar to Swahili
★ ''Kimwani'': spoken in the Kerimba Islands and northern coastal Mozambique.
★ ''Kingwana'': spoken in the eastern and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Sometimes called ''Copperbelt Swahili'', especially the variety spoken in the south.
★ ''Comorian language'', the language of the Comoros Islands, which form a chain between Tanzania and the northern tip of Madagascar.
★ ''Chimwiini'' was traditionally spoken around the Somali town of Barawa. In recent years, most of its speakers have fled to Kenya to escape civil war. Whether Chimwiini is Swahili or a distinct language is a question that provokes division within each of the following groups: linguists specializing in Swahili, Chimwiini speakers, and speakers of other Swahili dialects.
== The rise of Swahili to regional prominence[7] ==
There is as yet insufficient historical or archaeological evidence to allow one to state with confidence when and where either the Swahili language or the Swahili ethnicity emerged. Nevertheless, it is assumed that the Swahili speaking people have occupied their present territories, hugging the Indian Ocean, since well before AD 1000. Arab invaders from the Oman conquered and Islamicized much of the Swahili territories, in particular the twin islands of Zanzibar and Pemba to the south and the port towns to the north (Mombasa, etc.). Historically, Swahili literature first flowered in the northern half, even though in our time Zanzibar's fame as a center of Swahili culture is greater.
Starting about 1800, the rulers of Zanzibar organized trading expeditions into the interior of the mainland, up to the various lakes in the continent's Great Rift Valley. They soon established permanent trade routes and Swahili speaking merchants settled in stops along the new trade routes. For the most part, this process did not lead to genuine colonization. But colonisation did occur west of Lake Malawi, in what is now Katanga Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, giving rise to a highly divergent dialect.
After Germany seized the region known as Tanganyika (present day mainland Tanzania) for a colony in 1886, it took notice of the wide (but shallow) dissemination of Swahili, and soon designated Swahili as a colony wide official administrative language. The British did not do so in neighbouring Kenya, even though they made moves in that direction. The British and Germans both were keen to facilitate their rule over colonies with dozens of languages spoken by selecting a single local language that hopefully would be well accepted by the natives. Swahili was the only good candidate in these two colonies.
In the aftermath of Germany's defeat in World War I, it was dispossessed of all its overseas territories. Tanganyika fell into British hands. The British authorities, with the collaboration of British Christian missionary institutions active in these colonies, increased their resolve to institute Swahili as a common language for primary education and low level governance throughout their East African colonies (Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, and Kenya). Swahili was to be subordinate to English: university education, much secondary education, and governance at the highest levels would be conducted in English.
One key step in spreading Swahili was to create a standard written language. In June 1928, an interterritorial conference was held at Mombasa, at which the Zanzibar dialect, Kiunguja, was chosen to be the basis for standardizing Swahili[8].
Today's standard Swahili, the version taught as a second language, is for practical purposes Zanzibar Swahili, even though there are minor discrepancies between the written standard and the Zanzibar vernacular.
At the present time, about 90 percent of the approximately 35 million Tanzanians speak Swahili.[9]. Kenya's population is about equal, but apparently, the prevalence of Swahili there is less, although still large. The usage of Swahili in other countries is commonly overstated, but with the second language speakers in just the two nations of Kenya and Tanzania (possibly exceeding 50 million combined), Swahili now far outpaces Hausa in West Africa as the sub-Saharan indigenous language with the greatest number of speakers. At the same time, it must be realized that in fact no indigenous sub-Saharan language is widely spoken, relative to the total population of that part of the world. The 70 to 100 million Swahili speakers represent approximately ten percent of 743 million Sub Saharan Africans (2005 World Bank Data).
In non-African popular culture
In Civilization IV, the title music is a rearrangement of the Lord's Prayer in Swahili, sharing the same name - "Baba Yetu" ("Our Father"). [1]
In Michael Jackson's 1987 single "Liberian Girl" the repeated intro is the Swahili phrase "Nakupenda pia, nakutaka pia, mpenzi wee!" which translates "I love you too, and I want you too, my love!"
Disney's animated film The Lion King contains several Swahili references. The main character, "Simba", means lion, a character named "Rafiki" mean friend, and the popular song "Hakuna Matata" means "no problems".
Bungie Studios uses this language in some of its games (Halo 2).
See also
★ Swahili literature
★ Mandombe
★ UCLA Language Materials Project
Notes
1. L Marten, "Swahili", Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd ed., 2005, Elsevier
2. L Marten, "Swahili", Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd ed., 2005, Elsevier
3. Prins 1961
4. See here for details.
5. N&H 1993
6. H.E.Lambert 1956, 1957, 1958
7. Whiteley 1969; N&H 1993
8. Whiteley 1969: 80
9. Brock-Utne 2001: 123
References
★ Ashton, E. O. ''Swahili Grammar: Including intonation.'' Longman House. Essex 1947. ISBN 0-582-62701-X.
★ Brock-Utne, Birgit. 2001. Education for all -- in whose language? ''Oxford review of education'', 27(1): 115-134.
★ Chiraghdin, Shihabuddin and Mathias Mnyampala. ''Historia ya Kiswahili''. Oxford University Press. Eastern Africa. 1977. ISBN 0-19-572367-8
★ Contini-Morava, Ellen. ''Noun Classification in Swahili''. 1994.
★ Lambert, H.E. 1956. ''Chi-Chifundi: A Dialect of the Southern Kenya Coast''. (Kampala)
★ Lambert, H.E. 1957. ''Ki-Vumba: A Dialect of the Southern Kenya Coast''. (Kampala)
★ Lambert, H.E. 1958. ''Chi-Jomvu and ki-Ngare: Subdialects of the Mombasa Area''. (Kampala)
★ Marshad, Hassan A. ''Kiswahili au Kiingereza (Nchini Kenya)''. Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. Nairobi 1993. ISBN 9966-22-098-4.
★ Nurse, Derek, and Thomas J. Hinnebusch. 1993. Swahili and Sabaki: a linguistic history. Series: University of California Publications in Linguistics, v. 121.
★ Prins, A.H.J. 1961. The Swahili-Speaking Peoples of Zanzibar and the East African Coast (Arabs, Shirazi and Swahili). Ethnographic Survey of Africa, edited by Daryll Forde. London: International African Institute.
★ Prins, A.H.J. 1970. A Swahili Nautical Dictionary. Preliminary Studies in Swahili Lexicon - 1. Dar es Salaam.
★ Whiteley, Wilfred. 1969. Swahili: the rise of a national language. London: Methuen. Series: Studies in African History.
External links
★ Ethnologue report on Swahili Ethnologue report on Swahili, Congo
★ Omniglot's entry on the Swahili writing system
★ UCLA report on Swahili
★ PanAfrican L10n page on Swahili
★ Swahili Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow: Factors of Its Development and Expansion
★ Swahili educational and cultural Website
★ New Testament in Swahili
''Dictionaries, lexic and grammar:''
★ The Kamusi Project: Internet Living Swahili Dictionary (Yale University)
★ Online Swahili - English Dictionary
★ Swahili - English Dictionary
★ List of Swahili words of Arabic Origin
★ On nominal classes in Swahili
''Learning Swahili:''
★ Foreign Service Institute free text and training audio
★ KiSwahili for Travlers at About
★ Swahili for Travlers
★ The UCLA Language Materials Project
★ A New Swahili Language Method For Beginner Students
★ Exercises
Live Streams
★ Bongo Radio (''Swahili'' / ''English'', Tanzanian online radio station)
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