(Redirected from Sufi)
'Sufism' is a
mystic tradition within
Islam and encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practices dedicated to divine love and the cultivation of the heart.
Sufism has been defined as a type of knowledge by the great Sufi masters. Shaykh
Ahmad Zarruq, a 15th century Sufi who wrote
The Principles of Sufism, defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God.” Ibn 'Ajiba, one of the best known Sufi masters defined Sufism as "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one’s inward from filth and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits."
The ''
Tariqas'', or ''Sufi orders'', are associated with
Sunni Islam. It has been suggested that Sufi thought emerged from the
Middle East in the eighth century, but adherents are now found around the world.
[1].
Etymology
A few etymologies for the word ''Sufi'' ( - - - ) or ''Irfan'' (
Arabic/
Persian: عرفان) have been suggested.
The conventional view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. However, not all sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool. Another etymological theory states that the root word of Sufi is the Arabic word safa (صفا), meaning purity. This places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.
Others suggest the origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Mohammad(S.A.W) who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer. Yet another etymology, advanced by the 10th century author
Al-Biruni is that the word, as 'Sufiya', is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia', although for various reasons this derivation is not accepted by many at the present.
Basic beliefs
The essence of Being/Truths/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all notions of
duality, including a conception of an individual
self, and to realize the divine
unity.
Sufis teach in personal groups, as the counsel of the master is considered necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of
parable,
allegory, and
metaphor, and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of oneself. Although philosophies vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to various forms of
mysticism such as
Hesychasm,
Zen Buddhism,
Gnosticism and
Christian mysticism.
A significant part of
Persian literature comes from the Sufis, who created books of poetry containing the teachings of the Sufis. Some of the more notable examples of this poetry are the ''
Walled Garden of Truth'', ''
Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam'', the ''
Conference of the Birds'' and the ''
Masnavi''.
History of Sufism
Main articles: History of Sufism
Origins
Sufism is generally believed to have originated among Muslims near
Basra in modern Iraq. Almost all traditional Sufi schools (or "orders") trace their "chains of transmission" back to
the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Imam
Ali ibn Abi Talib; the
Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces its origin to caliph
Abu Bakr. From their point of view, the esoteric teaching was given to those who had the capacity to contain the direct experiential
gnosis of God, which was passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Worth noting is that the original Islamic scriptures (Qur'an, tafsir Ibn Ishaq ,tafsir al-Tabari) have no mention whatsoever of Sufi traditions or practices.
Some
orientalist scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example,
Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. According to
Louis Massignon: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."
[2]
The great masters of Sufism
The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in areas previously under
Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterized by the practice of an apprentice (
murid) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (
shaykh,
pir or
murshid).
Schools were developed, concerning themselves with topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to purify it of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages (
maqaam) and states (
haal). The schools were championed by reformers who felt their core values and manners were threatened, as the material prosperity of society seemed to them to be eroding the spiritual life.
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian,
Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics among the "Taabi'een" in Islam.
Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.
Junayd was among the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘
fanaa’ and ‘
baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning
worldly phenomena.
Some muslims believe that Sufism was first formed as a belief in South Asia when Islam mixed with the Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist Cultures, hence why some festivals are shared between the followers of these beliefs.
Formalization of philosophies of Sufism
Al Ghazali's treatises, the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It should be noted that later on in his life
Al Ghazali distanced himself from Sufism and even refuted it.
It was around 1000
CE that early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.
Propagation of Sufism
Sufism, during 1200-1500 CE, experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and
hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students, but also places for practicing Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat.
The propagation of Sufism started in Baghdad in
Shiah majority areas, such as
Iraq and
Khorasan, and spread to
Persia, the
Indian subcontinent,
North Africa, and
Muslim Spain. There were tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.), as well as the beginning of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq).
One of the first orders to originate was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah
Ahmed Yesevi in modern
Kazakhstan. The
Kubrawiya order, originating in Central Asia, was named after
Najmeddin Kubra, known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , because a number of his disciples became shaykhs. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is
Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the
Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included
Rumi, founder of the
Mevlevi order in Turkey,
Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Iran,
Moinuddin Chishti and
Makhdoom Ashraf in India.
Sufism's role in the expansion of Islam
Sufism has some roots in the Shamanic traditions of Middle Asia, and is flexible in terms of religious materiality. These two characteristics of Sufism attracted the nomadic people of middle-western Asia (mainly the current Iranic and Turkic republics of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan). Sufism also spread quickly among the
Anatolian Turkmen and among Balkan peoples of modern Albania, Bosnia, Macedonia, and Bulgaria.
The mystics of Khorasan like Ahmad Yasavi and Hajji Bektash Wali were influential in the spread of Sufist Islam.
Modern Sufism
Important Sufis of the modern era include the late Imamuddin Chishty,
Salaheddin Ali Nader Shah Angha,
Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha,
Inayat Khan,
Idries Shah,
Nuh Ha Mim Keller,
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen,
Prof. Muhammad Tahir ul Qadri,
Muzaffer Ozak,
Javad Nurbakhsh,
Shaykh Muhammad Nazim Adil al Haqqani, and
Samuel L. Lewis. These individuals have in great measure been responsible for the continued introduction and spread of the Sufi path in the modern West.
Influences
A number of scholars perceive influences on Sufism from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of
mysticism and philosophy. Some of these new perspectives originate from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam, an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam, and the incorporation of ideas and practices from other mysticisms such as
Gnosticism and
Judaism into Islam. There are also claims regarding
ancient Egyptian roots of Sufism which are not widely accepted. However, most Sunni Muslim scholars consider Sufism to be an integral part of Islam, and do not acknowledge foreign influence on orthodox Sufism.
Sufi concepts
Main articles: Sufi philosophy
The Six Subtleties
'Realities of The Heart:'
[3]
Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish
Lataif-e-Sitta (The Six Subtleties), 'Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa'. These lataif (singular : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs", or faculties of sensory perception.
Sufic development involves the awakening of these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in an individual. Each center is associated with a particular color and general area of the body, oftentimes with a particular prophet, and varies from order to order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion."
The person gets acquainted with the lataif one by one by
Muraqaba (Sufi meditation),
Dhikr (Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche of negative thoughts, emotions, and actions. Loving God and one's fellow, irrespective of his or her race, religion or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata of
kabbalah and the
tantric chakra system.
Sufi cosmology
Main articles: Sufi cosmology
Although there is no consensus with regard to
Sufi cosmology, one can disentangle at least three different cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by
Suhrawardi Maqtul,
Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers like
Ibn Sina and Sufis like
Ibn Arabi, and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. All these doctrines (each one of them claiming to be impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed, frequently with confusing results – a situation one also encounters in other esoteric doctrines.
One of the most thorough declarations of Sufi cosmology is found in the book
God Speaks by
Meher Baba.
See also: ''
Plane (cosmology) Esoteric cosmology''.
Sufi practices
Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the
Qur'an for all
Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from
hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
The practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblance with the practices of the
Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the
Merkavah practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness.
Some
Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the
liturgy of which may include
recitation,
singing,
instrumental music,
dance,
costumes,
incense,
meditation,
ecstasy, and
trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).
Hadhra
Main articles: Hadhra
Hadhra is a dance associated with
dhikr practiced primarily in the
Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.
Qawwali
Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in
Pakistan,
India,
Afganistan,
Iran and
Turkey. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the
Sabri Brothers.
Amir Khusro, a disciple of
Nizamuddin Auliya, of the
Chishti Order, is credited with inventing Qawwali in the 14th century.
Sama
Sama or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to
Sufi worship practices involving music and dance (see ''
Sufi whirling''). In
Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual. See
Qawwali origins and
''Origin and History of the Qawwali'',
Adam Nayyar,
Lok Virsa Research Centre,
Islamabad, 1988.
Khalwa
Khalwa refers to a form of
retreat, once widespread but now less common. A ''khalwa'' may be prescribed by the ''shaykh'' (spiritual advisor) of the ''
murid'' or ''talib'' (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also
Maryam (Mary) the mother of
Issa (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Prophet Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave on
Mount Hira where he received his first inspiration – but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only
Zakariya was permitted to see her.
Sufi poetry
Sufism has produced a large body of poetry in
Arabic,
Kurdish,
Persian,
Punjabi,
Sindhi,
Turkish,
Pashto language and
Urdu languages which notably includes the works of
Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi,
al-Hallaj,
Ibn al-Farid,
Hafez,
Jami,
Ibn Arabi,
Farid Ud-Din Attar,
Abdul Qader Bedil,
Bulleh Shah,
Amir Khusro,
Yunus Emre,
Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai,
Sachal Sarmast,
Sultan Bahu,
Muhammad Iqbal,
Hussain Baksh Malang as well as numerous traditions of devotional dance, such as
Sufi whirling, and music, such as
Qawwali.
Langar
Langar is a fundamental element of Indian
Sufism, especially the
Chishti Order. Langar is served in the precincts of a Sufi
Dergah, and is served out of a massive pot called a "Deg," and is not necessarily vegetarian. Langar is not only available for all but is actively distributed to the poor.
[4]
Orders of Sufism
Main articles: Tariqa
Traditional orders
The traditional Sufi orders emphasise the role of Sufism within Islam. Therefore, the
Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the
Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders are the
Qadiri,
Chisti,
Oveyssi,
Shadhili,
Jerrahi,
Naqshbandi,
Ashrafi,
Bektashi ,
Nimatullahi and
Mevlevi. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past
Caliphates were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia.
For a longer list of Sufi orders see:
Non-traditional Sufi groups
In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are
Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and
Sufism Reoriented.
Universal Sufism
Main articles: Universal Sufism
Mainstream Sufism is seen by its scholars and supporters as a part of traditional Islam. However, there is a major line of non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being a
universal philosophy, that is independent of the
Qur'an and the teachings of Prophet
Muhammad. This view of Sufism has been popular in the
Western world. Universal Sufism tends to be opposed by traditional Sufis, who argue that Sufism has always been practiced from within an Islamic framework and can never be separated from it.
Inayat Khan founded
Universal Sufism whilst also maintaining his lineage in
Chisti Sufism, and
Idries Shah advocated similar concepts.
Irina Tweedie and
Abdullah Dougan also taught outside the Islamic context while maintaining the connection to their
Naqshbandi heritage.
There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary Muslim thought from within. According to this view, Sufism represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to God and His creation.
Traditional Islamic schools of thought and Sufism
Islam traditionally consists of a number of groups. The two main divisions are the
Sunnis and the
Shia. Shia and Sunni Islam consist of a number of schools of legal jurisprudence (called
Madhabs). Sufis do not define Sufism as a madhhab — what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is practicing Sufism, usually through association with a Sufi order. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism don't see it as an exclusive group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and
Ihsan in their lives.
W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
The relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complicated due to the variety views held among them. Many traditional scholars, such as
Al-Ghazali, helped it's propogation while there are also many traditional scholars such as
Ibn Taymiyyah whom opposed it as an innovation.
Controversy and criticism of Sufism
Sufism is a somewhat controversial subject today. For didactic convenience, the perspectives on Sufism as a part of Islam will be mentioned first and after that, the non Muslim groups who claim to be Sufi adherents.
Classic position on Sufism
Sufism emphasises non quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which couldn't be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication, which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the
Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.
[5] One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was
Ibn Taymiya.
Criticism of Sufism
# Sufi masters have introduced many special prayers and devotional acts into their schools.
# The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity
Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to
pantheism and therefore incompatible with Islam.
[6] Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature.
[7]
Islamic positions on non-Islamic Sufi groups
The use of the title Sufi by many groups to refer to themselves and their use of traditional Sufi masters (notably
Jalaluddin Rumi) as sources of inspiration as well as the existence of interpretations of classical Sufis texts by people who have no grounding in traditional Islamic sciences has created a group of non-Islamic Sufis. These are considered by certain conventional Islamic scholars as "beyond the pale" of the religion. However, Sufis are often encouraged to observe a higher degree of forebearance.
Some Sufi Sheikhs, although having been initiated in an Islamic setting themselves, have gone on to teach more widely and to make it clear that students of Sufism need not formally embrace Islam.
See also
★
Sulook
★
Salik
★
Khanqah
★
List of Sufis
★
List of Sufism related topics
★
Keramat
★
Sufi rock
Notes
1. Encyclopedia Britannica 2005
2. Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. 104.
3. Realities of THe HEart Lataif
4. http://www.garibnawaz.com/monuments.asp
5. http://www.sunnah.org/history/Scholars/abd_alqahir_albaghadadi.htm
6. http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=6330&CATE=24
7. http://www.sunnah.org/publication/salafi/tosos.htm
References
★ Inner Life, by Hazrat Inayat Khan
★
Sufi Master
★ [http:
★
[1] [2] [3] Excrepts/Books by
Abdul Qadir Jilani
//www.naqshbandiaowaisiah.com/library/dalael_us_salook Tasawwuf an
Objective Appraisal] by Maullana Allah Yar Khan, reviver Shaikh of
Naqshbandia Owaisiah order of Sufism
★ ''The Sufis'' by
Idries Shah (1971) ISBN 0-385-07966-4
★ ''The Way of the Sufi'' by
Idries Shah (1991) ISBN 0-14-019252-
★ "Yogis in Silence", by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj,
New Delhi
★ "Sufism Beyond Religion",by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd.,
Daryaganj, New Delhi
★ "Prem Pravartak Sufi" (in Hindi)by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd.,
Daryaganj, New Delhi
★ "The Science and Philosophy of Spirituality", by RKGupta published by
M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
★ "Sufi Santmat-Darshan aur Vigyan" ( in Hindi) by RKGupta published by M/s
BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
★ ''The Rules of Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order'' by
Omar Ali Shah
(1998) ISBN 2-909347-09-5
★
[4] [5] [6] Excrepts/Books by
Abdul Qadir Jilani
★
[7] [8] Excrepts/Books by
Ibn Arabi
★ Awakening of the Human Spirit, by Hazrat Inayat Khan
★ Colby, Frederick. The Subtleties of the Ascension: Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muhammad's Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
★ Ernst, Carl. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.
★ Bewley, Aisha. The Darqawi Way. London: Diwan Press, 1981.
★ Arberry, A.J.. Mystical Poems of Rumi, Vols. 1&2. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1991.
★ Jean-Louis Michon. The Autobiography (Fahrasa) of a Moroccan Soufi: Ahmad Ibn `Ajiba (1747-1809). Louisville: Fons Vitae, 1999.
★ Austin, R.W.J.. Sufis of Andalusia, Gloustershire: Beshara Publications, 1988.
★ Al-Badawi, Mostafa. Sufi Sage of Arabia. Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2005.
External links
★
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