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(Redirected from Sour)
:''"Sour" redirects here. For the Lebanese city, see Tyre, Lebanon.''
The 'basic tastes' are the commonly recognized types of taste sensed by humans. Humans receive
tastes through sensory organs called ''taste buds'' or ''gustatory calyculi'', concentrated on the upper
surface of the tongue. Scientists describe five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and umami
(described as savoury, meaty, or brothy). Taste and smell are subsumed under the term ''flavor''. The basic tastes are only one component that contributes to the sensation of food in the mouth — other factors include the food's smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose, its texture, detected by mechanoreceptors, and its temperature, detected by thermoreceptors.
In Western culture, the concept of basic tastes can be traced back at least to Aristotle, who cited "sweet" and "bitter," with "succulent," "salt," "pungent," "harsh," "astringent" and "acid" as elaborations of those two basics. The ancient Chinese Five Elements philosophy lists slightly different five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and spicy. Japanese and Indian cultures each add their own sixth taste to the basic five.
For many years, books on the physiology of human taste contained diagrams of the tongue showing levels of sensitivity to different tastes in different regions. In fact, taste qualities are found in all areas of the tongue, in contrast with the popular view that different tastes map to different areas of the tongue.[1][2]
The receptors for all known basic tastes have been identified. The receptors for sour and salty are ion channels while the receptors for sweet, bitter, and umami belong to the class of G protein coupled receptors.
In November 2005, it was reported that a team of French researchers experimenting on rodents claimed to have evidence for a sixth taste, for fatty substances. It is speculated that humans may also have the same receptors. Fat has occasionally been raised as a possible basic taste since at least the 1800s.
Saltiness is a taste produced by the presence of sodium chloride (and to a lesser degree other salts). The ions of salt, especially sodium (Na+), can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue, leading to an action potential.
Sourness is the taste that detects acidity. The mechanism for detecting sour taste is similar to that which detects salt taste. Hydrogen ion channels detect the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+ ions) that are formed from acids and water.
Hydrogen ions are capable of permeating the amiloride-sensitive sodium channels, but this is not the only mechanism involved in detecting the quality of sourness. Hydrogen ions also inhibit the potassium channel, which normally functions to hyperpolarize the cell. Thus, by a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire in this specific manner.
Sweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins and a few other substances. Sweetness is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl group. Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein coupled receptors coupled to the G protein gustducin found on the taste buds. At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" need to be activated for the brain to register sweetness. The compounds which the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to two different sweetness receptors. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which are shown to be accountable for all sweet sensing in humans and animals (8). The average human detection threshold for sucrose is 10 millimoles per litre. For lactose it is 30 millimoles per litre, and 5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline 0.002 millimoles per litre.
The bitter taste is perceived by many to be unpleasant, sharp, or disagreeable. Evolutionary biologists have suggested that a distaste for bitter substances may have evolved as a defense mechanism against accidental poisoning.
Common bitter foods and beverages include coffee, unsweetened chocolate, bitter melon, beer, uncured olives, citrus peel, many plants in the Brassicaceae family, dandelion greens and escarole. Quinine, the anti-malarial prophylactic, is also known for its bitter taste and is found in tonic water.
The bitterest substance known is the synthetic chemical denatonium, discovered in 1958. It is used as an aversive agent that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion.
Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2) such as TAS2R16 coupled to the G protein gustducin are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances. They are identified not only by their ability to taste for certain "bitter" ligands, but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric).[3] Researchers use two synthetic substances, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) to study the genetics of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people, but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters, some are so-called "supertasters" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics. In addition, it is of interest to those who study evolution since PTC-tasting is associated with the ability to taste numerous natural bitter compounds, a large number of which are known to be toxic.
Savouriness is the name for the taste sensation produced by compounds such as glutamate are commonly found in fermented and aged foods. In English, it is sometimes described as "meaty" or "savoury". In Japanese, the term ''umami'' (旨味, うまみ) is used for this taste sensation, whose characters literally mean "delicious flavour." Umami is now the commonly used term by taste scientists. The same taste is referred to as ''xiānwèi'' (鮮味 or 鲜味) in Chinese cooking. Savoury is considered a fundamental taste in Chinese and Japanese cooking, but is not discussed as much in Western cuisine.
Examples of food containing these glutamate (and thus strong in the savoury taste) are parmesan and roquefort cheese as well as soy sauce and fish sauce. It is also found in significant amounts in various unfermented foods such as walnuts, grapes, broccoli, tomatoes, and mushrooms, and to a lesser degree in meat. The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combination with sodium. This is one reason why tomatoes exhibit a stronger taste after adding salt. Sauces with savoury and salty tastes are very popular for cooking, such as tomato sauces and ketchup for Western cuisines and soy sauce and fish sauce for East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines. Since not every glutamate produces a savoury-like taste sensation, there is continuing investigation into the exact mechanism of how the savoury taste sensation is produced.
The additive monosodium glutamate (MSG), which was developed as a food additive in 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda, produces a strong savoury taste. Savoury is also provided by the nucleotides disodium 5’-inosine monophosphate (IMP) and disodium 5’-guanosine monophosphate (GMP). These are naturally present in many protein-rich foods. IMP is present in high concentrations in many foods, including dried skipjack tuna flakes used to make ''dashi'', a Japanese broth. GMP is present in high concentration in dried ''shiitake '' mushrooms, used in much of the cuisine of Asia. There is a synergistic effect between MSG, IMP and GMP which together in certain ratios produce a strong umami taste.
A subset of savoury taste buds responds specifically to glutamate in the same way that ''sweet'' ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of G protein coupled glutamate receptors.[4] Earlier reports had postulated that a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR4) and the NMDA receptor might play a role in umami perception.
The tongue can also feel other sensations, not generally called tastes ''per se'' or included in the five human tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system.
Temperature is an essential element of human taste experience. Food and drink that — within a given culture — is considered to be properly served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and ''vice versa''.
Some sugar substitutes have strong heats of solution, as is the case of sorbitol, erythritol, xylitol, mannitol, lactitol and maltitol. When they are dry and are allowed to dissolve in saliva, besides the sweet taste also heat effects can be recognized. The cooling effect upon eating may be desirable, as in a mint candy made with crystalline sorbitol, or undesirable if it's not typical for that product, like in a cookie. Crystalline phases tend to have a positive heat of solution and thus a cooling effect. The heats of solution of the amorphous phases of the same substances are negative and cause a warm impression in the mouth.[5]
Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors. One can sense a cool sensation (also known as "fresh" or "minty") from, e.g., spearmint, menthol, ethanol or camphor, which is caused by the food activating the TRP-M8 ion channel on nerve cells that also signal cold. Unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.
Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food activating a nerve cell called TRP-V1, which is also activated by hot temperatures. The sensation, usually referred to as being "hot" or "spicy", is a notable feature of Mexican, Indian, Szechuan, Korean, Indonesian, central Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.
The two main plants providing this sensation are chili peppers (those fruits of the ''Capsicum'' plant that contain capsaicin) and black pepper.
Chinese cooking includes the idea of 麻 ''má'', the sensation of tingling numbness caused by spices such as Sichuan pepper. The cuisine of Sichuan province often combines this with chili pepper to produce a 麻辣 ''málà'', "numbing-and-hot", flavour.[6]
Recent research has revealed a potential taste receptor called the CD36 receptor to be reacting to fat, more specifically, fatty acids.[7] This receptor was found in mice, but probably exists among other mammals as well. In experiments, mice with a genetic defect that blocked this receptor didn't show the same urge to consume fatty acids as normal mice, and failed to prepare gastric juices in their digestive tracts to digest fat. This discovery may lead to a better understanding of the biochemical reasons behind this behaviour, although more research is still necessary to confirm the relationship of CD36 and the cravings of fat.
Some Japanese researchers refer to a flavour called ''kokumi'' which has been described variously as continuity, "mouthfulness", mouthfeel and thickness.
In Indian tradition, the tastes are referred to as 'Arusuvai' or six tastes [1]. These tastes are normally referred to as the following: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, hot / spicy and astringent. Some people call the sixth taste as neutral or tasteless. A typical example of a neutral tasting substance is water. Certain others say the astringent or the sixth taste is a mix of varied tastes and is termed Kasaaya, in India. That is more in line with the Japanese approach to umami.
Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or rough sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth or the teeth. Examples include tea, rhubarb, grapes and unripe persimmons and bananas.
Less exact terms for the astringent sensation include: "rubbery", "hard", "styptic", "dry", "rough", "harsh" (especially for wine) and "tart" (normally referring to sourness) [8]. The Chinese have a term for this: 澀 (''sè''), the Korean have 떫다 (''tteolda''), the Japanese call it 渋い (''shibui''), while Thai have ฝาด (fard), the Malay use ''kelat'', and in Russian there is ''вяжущий (vyazhuschiy)'' or ''тёрпкий (tjorpky)''.
All people know this taste (e.g. Cu2+, FeSO4, or blood in mouth), but it is not only taste but olfactory receptors worked in this case (''Guth'' and ''Grosch'', 1990).
★ Some diseases make us feel "metallic taste"[9]
★ Some substances (tetracycline, H2S) can stimulate "metallic taste" [10]
1. Huang A. L., et al. "The cells and logic for mammalian sour taste detection" (no free access) Nature, 442. 934 - 938 (2006).
2. "How sour taste buds grow" Scenta August 25, 2006.
3. Lindemann "Receptors and transduction in taste." Nature 2001
4. A taste for umami, Lindemann, Bernd, , , Nature Neuroscience, 2000
5. Thermal behaviour of some sugar alcohols, , HK, Cammenga, Journal of thermal analysis, 1996
6. http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Zant_pip.html?noframes]
7. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=000AFE88-E770-1367-A6B083414B7F4945
8. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/68000103/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
9. Christian Murray MD, Nowell Solish MD, FRCPC (2003) Metallic Taste: An Unusual Reaction to Botulinum Toxin A / Dermatologic Surgery 29 (5), 562–563.
10. Long-term effects on the olfactory system of exposure to hydrogen sulphide / AR Hirsch and G Zavala / Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol 56, 284-287
(8) Zhao G.Q., et al. Cell, 255-256 (2003)
★ Kikunae Ikeda. (1909). ''New Seasonings''
★ Bernd Lindemann, Yoko Ogiwara, and Yuzo Ninomiya. (2002). ''The Discovery of Umami''
★ Dunlop, Fuchsia. 'It's all a matter of taste', ''Financial Times'' (Europe: August 6 2005) p.W9
★ Huang A. L., et al. Nature, 442. 934 - 938 (2006)
★ Ishimaru Y., et al. PNAS, 103. 12569 - 12574 (2006)
★ Researchers Define Molecular Basis of Human "Sweet Tooth" and Umami Taste
:''"Sour" redirects here. For the Lebanese city, see Tyre, Lebanon.''
The 'basic tastes' are the commonly recognized types of taste sensed by humans. Humans receive
tastes through sensory organs called ''taste buds'' or ''gustatory calyculi'', concentrated on the upper
surface of the tongue. Scientists describe five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and umami
(described as savoury, meaty, or brothy). Taste and smell are subsumed under the term ''flavor''. The basic tastes are only one component that contributes to the sensation of food in the mouth — other factors include the food's smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose, its texture, detected by mechanoreceptors, and its temperature, detected by thermoreceptors.
History
In Western culture, the concept of basic tastes can be traced back at least to Aristotle, who cited "sweet" and "bitter," with "succulent," "salt," "pungent," "harsh," "astringent" and "acid" as elaborations of those two basics. The ancient Chinese Five Elements philosophy lists slightly different five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and spicy. Japanese and Indian cultures each add their own sixth taste to the basic five.
For many years, books on the physiology of human taste contained diagrams of the tongue showing levels of sensitivity to different tastes in different regions. In fact, taste qualities are found in all areas of the tongue, in contrast with the popular view that different tastes map to different areas of the tongue.[1][2]
Recent discoveries
The receptors for all known basic tastes have been identified. The receptors for sour and salty are ion channels while the receptors for sweet, bitter, and umami belong to the class of G protein coupled receptors.
In November 2005, it was reported that a team of French researchers experimenting on rodents claimed to have evidence for a sixth taste, for fatty substances. It is speculated that humans may also have the same receptors. Fat has occasionally been raised as a possible basic taste since at least the 1800s.
Five basic taste
Saltiness
Saltiness is a taste produced by the presence of sodium chloride (and to a lesser degree other salts). The ions of salt, especially sodium (Na+), can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue, leading to an action potential.
Sourness
Sourness is the taste that detects acidity. The mechanism for detecting sour taste is similar to that which detects salt taste. Hydrogen ion channels detect the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+ ions) that are formed from acids and water.
Hydrogen ions are capable of permeating the amiloride-sensitive sodium channels, but this is not the only mechanism involved in detecting the quality of sourness. Hydrogen ions also inhibit the potassium channel, which normally functions to hyperpolarize the cell. Thus, by a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire in this specific manner.
Sweetness
Sweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins and a few other substances. Sweetness is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl group. Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein coupled receptors coupled to the G protein gustducin found on the taste buds. At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" need to be activated for the brain to register sweetness. The compounds which the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to two different sweetness receptors. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which are shown to be accountable for all sweet sensing in humans and animals (8). The average human detection threshold for sucrose is 10 millimoles per litre. For lactose it is 30 millimoles per litre, and 5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline 0.002 millimoles per litre.
Bitterness
The bitter taste is perceived by many to be unpleasant, sharp, or disagreeable. Evolutionary biologists have suggested that a distaste for bitter substances may have evolved as a defense mechanism against accidental poisoning.
Common bitter foods and beverages include coffee, unsweetened chocolate, bitter melon, beer, uncured olives, citrus peel, many plants in the Brassicaceae family, dandelion greens and escarole. Quinine, the anti-malarial prophylactic, is also known for its bitter taste and is found in tonic water.
The bitterest substance known is the synthetic chemical denatonium, discovered in 1958. It is used as an aversive agent that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion.
Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2) such as TAS2R16 coupled to the G protein gustducin are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances. They are identified not only by their ability to taste for certain "bitter" ligands, but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric).[3] Researchers use two synthetic substances, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) to study the genetics of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people, but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters, some are so-called "supertasters" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics. In addition, it is of interest to those who study evolution since PTC-tasting is associated with the ability to taste numerous natural bitter compounds, a large number of which are known to be toxic.
Savouriness
Savouriness is the name for the taste sensation produced by compounds such as glutamate are commonly found in fermented and aged foods. In English, it is sometimes described as "meaty" or "savoury". In Japanese, the term ''umami'' (旨味, うまみ) is used for this taste sensation, whose characters literally mean "delicious flavour." Umami is now the commonly used term by taste scientists. The same taste is referred to as ''xiānwèi'' (鮮味 or 鲜味) in Chinese cooking. Savoury is considered a fundamental taste in Chinese and Japanese cooking, but is not discussed as much in Western cuisine.
Examples of food containing these glutamate (and thus strong in the savoury taste) are parmesan and roquefort cheese as well as soy sauce and fish sauce. It is also found in significant amounts in various unfermented foods such as walnuts, grapes, broccoli, tomatoes, and mushrooms, and to a lesser degree in meat. The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combination with sodium. This is one reason why tomatoes exhibit a stronger taste after adding salt. Sauces with savoury and salty tastes are very popular for cooking, such as tomato sauces and ketchup for Western cuisines and soy sauce and fish sauce for East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines. Since not every glutamate produces a savoury-like taste sensation, there is continuing investigation into the exact mechanism of how the savoury taste sensation is produced.
The additive monosodium glutamate (MSG), which was developed as a food additive in 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda, produces a strong savoury taste. Savoury is also provided by the nucleotides disodium 5’-inosine monophosphate (IMP) and disodium 5’-guanosine monophosphate (GMP). These are naturally present in many protein-rich foods. IMP is present in high concentrations in many foods, including dried skipjack tuna flakes used to make ''dashi'', a Japanese broth. GMP is present in high concentration in dried ''shiitake '' mushrooms, used in much of the cuisine of Asia. There is a synergistic effect between MSG, IMP and GMP which together in certain ratios produce a strong umami taste.
A subset of savoury taste buds responds specifically to glutamate in the same way that ''sweet'' ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of G protein coupled glutamate receptors.[4] Earlier reports had postulated that a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR4) and the NMDA receptor might play a role in umami perception.
More sensations
The tongue can also feel other sensations, not generally called tastes ''per se'' or included in the five human tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system.
Temperature
Temperature is an essential element of human taste experience. Food and drink that — within a given culture — is considered to be properly served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and ''vice versa''.
Some sugar substitutes have strong heats of solution, as is the case of sorbitol, erythritol, xylitol, mannitol, lactitol and maltitol. When they are dry and are allowed to dissolve in saliva, besides the sweet taste also heat effects can be recognized. The cooling effect upon eating may be desirable, as in a mint candy made with crystalline sorbitol, or undesirable if it's not typical for that product, like in a cookie. Crystalline phases tend to have a positive heat of solution and thus a cooling effect. The heats of solution of the amorphous phases of the same substances are negative and cause a warm impression in the mouth.[5]
Coolness
Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors. One can sense a cool sensation (also known as "fresh" or "minty") from, e.g., spearmint, menthol, ethanol or camphor, which is caused by the food activating the TRP-M8 ion channel on nerve cells that also signal cold. Unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.
Spiciness or Hotness
Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food activating a nerve cell called TRP-V1, which is also activated by hot temperatures. The sensation, usually referred to as being "hot" or "spicy", is a notable feature of Mexican, Indian, Szechuan, Korean, Indonesian, central Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.
The two main plants providing this sensation are chili peppers (those fruits of the ''Capsicum'' plant that contain capsaicin) and black pepper.
Numbness
Chinese cooking includes the idea of 麻 ''má'', the sensation of tingling numbness caused by spices such as Sichuan pepper. The cuisine of Sichuan province often combines this with chili pepper to produce a 麻辣 ''málà'', "numbing-and-hot", flavour.[6]
Fat
Recent research has revealed a potential taste receptor called the CD36 receptor to be reacting to fat, more specifically, fatty acids.[7] This receptor was found in mice, but probably exists among other mammals as well. In experiments, mice with a genetic defect that blocked this receptor didn't show the same urge to consume fatty acids as normal mice, and failed to prepare gastric juices in their digestive tracts to digest fat. This discovery may lead to a better understanding of the biochemical reasons behind this behaviour, although more research is still necessary to confirm the relationship of CD36 and the cravings of fat.
Kokumi
Some Japanese researchers refer to a flavour called ''kokumi'' which has been described variously as continuity, "mouthfulness", mouthfeel and thickness.
Kasaaya
In Indian tradition, the tastes are referred to as 'Arusuvai' or six tastes [1]. These tastes are normally referred to as the following: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, hot / spicy and astringent. Some people call the sixth taste as neutral or tasteless. A typical example of a neutral tasting substance is water. Certain others say the astringent or the sixth taste is a mix of varied tastes and is termed Kasaaya, in India. That is more in line with the Japanese approach to umami.
Astringency
Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or rough sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth or the teeth. Examples include tea, rhubarb, grapes and unripe persimmons and bananas.
Less exact terms for the astringent sensation include: "rubbery", "hard", "styptic", "dry", "rough", "harsh" (especially for wine) and "tart" (normally referring to sourness) [8]. The Chinese have a term for this: 澀 (''sè''), the Korean have 떫다 (''tteolda''), the Japanese call it 渋い (''shibui''), while Thai have ฝาด (fard), the Malay use ''kelat'', and in Russian there is ''вяжущий (vyazhuschiy)'' or ''тёрпкий (tjorpky)''.
Metallic taste
All people know this taste (e.g. Cu2+, FeSO4, or blood in mouth), but it is not only taste but olfactory receptors worked in this case (''Guth'' and ''Grosch'', 1990).
★ Some diseases make us feel "metallic taste"[9]
★ Some substances (tetracycline, H2S) can stimulate "metallic taste" [10]
References
1. Huang A. L., et al. "The cells and logic for mammalian sour taste detection" (no free access) Nature, 442. 934 - 938 (2006).
2. "How sour taste buds grow" Scenta August 25, 2006.
3. Lindemann "Receptors and transduction in taste." Nature 2001
4. A taste for umami, Lindemann, Bernd, , , Nature Neuroscience, 2000
5. Thermal behaviour of some sugar alcohols, , HK, Cammenga, Journal of thermal analysis, 1996
6. http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Zant_pip.html?noframes]
7. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=000AFE88-E770-1367-A6B083414B7F4945
8. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/68000103/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
9. Christian Murray MD, Nowell Solish MD, FRCPC (2003) Metallic Taste: An Unusual Reaction to Botulinum Toxin A / Dermatologic Surgery 29 (5), 562–563.
10. Long-term effects on the olfactory system of exposure to hydrogen sulphide / AR Hirsch and G Zavala / Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol 56, 284-287
(8) Zhao G.Q., et al. Cell, 255-256 (2003)
★ Kikunae Ikeda. (1909). ''New Seasonings''
★ Bernd Lindemann, Yoko Ogiwara, and Yuzo Ninomiya. (2002). ''The Discovery of Umami''
★ Dunlop, Fuchsia. 'It's all a matter of taste', ''Financial Times'' (Europe: August 6 2005) p.W9
★ Huang A. L., et al. Nature, 442. 934 - 938 (2006)
★ Ishimaru Y., et al. PNAS, 103. 12569 - 12574 (2006)
External links
★ Researchers Define Molecular Basis of Human "Sweet Tooth" and Umami Taste
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psst.. try this: add to faves
