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'Sociology' (from Latin: ''socius'', "companion"; and the suffix ''-ology'', "the study of", from Greek λόγος, ''lógos'', "knowledge") is an academic and applied discipline that studies society and human social interaction. Sociological
research ranges from the analysis of short
contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of
global social processes. Numerous fields within the discipline focus on how and why people are organized in society, either as
individuals or as members of
associations,
groups, and
institutions. As an
academic discipline, sociology is typically considered a
social science.
Sociology is a cluster of disciplines which seek to explain the dimensions of society and the dynamics that societies operate upon. Some of these disciplines which reflect current fields of Sociology are
demography, which studies changes in a
population size or type;
criminology, which studies criminal behavior and deviance;
social stratification, which studies inequality and
class structure;
political sociology which studies government and laws;
sociology of race and
sociology of gender which examine the
social construction of race and gender as well as race and
gender inequality. New sociological fields and sub-fields—such as
network analysis and
environmental sociology—continue to evolve; many of them are very cross-disciplinary in nature.
Sociological research provides
educators,
planners,
lawmakers,
administrators,
developers,
business leaders, and people interested in resolving
social problems and formulating
public policy with
rationales for the actions that they take.
History
Main articles: History of sociology
Sociology, in studying society, including economic, political and cultural systems, has origins in the
common stock of human
knowledge and
philosophy.
Social analysis has been carried out by scholars and
philosophers at least as early as the time of
Plato.
There is evidence of
early Muslim sociology from the
14th century:
Ibn Khaldun, in his ''
Muqaddimah'' (later translated as ''Prolegomena'' in
Latin), the introduction to a seven volume analysis of
universal history, in which he advanced theories of
social cohesion and
social conflict.
Sociology later emerged as a scientific discipline in the early
19th century as an academic response to the challenges of
modernity and
modernization, such as
industrialization and
urbanization. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held social groups together, but also to develop responses to
social disintegration and
exploitation.
The word sociology was coined by French thinker
Auguste Comte in 1830 from the Latin: ''socius'', "companion"; and the suffix ''-ology'', "the study of"). Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind - including history, psychology and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics,
positive science) and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of positive sciences.' Thus, Comte has come to be viewed as the "Father of Sociology."
Sometimes people take Auguste Comte to be the founder of Sociology but Sociology has been around since around the same time Islam emerged and that was many many years before Comte.
"Classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include
Ferdinand Tönnies,
Émile Durkheim,
Vilfredo Pareto,
Ludwig Gumplowicz,
Georg Simmel, and
Max Weber. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed
religion,
education,
economics,
law,
psychology,
ethics,
philosophy, and
theology, and their theories have been applied in a variety of academic disciplines. Their influence on sociology was foundational.
Institutionalizing sociology
The discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the
University of Kansas,
Lawrence in 1890 by Frank Blackmar, under the course title ''Elements of Sociology''. It remains the oldest continuing sociology course in America. The ''Department of History and Sociology'' at the University of Kansas was established in 1891
[1] [2], and the first full fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the
University of Chicago by
Albion W. Small, who in 1895 founded the
American Journal of Sociology [3]
The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the
University of Bordeaux by
Émile Durkheim, founder of ''
L'Année Sociologique'' (1896). The first sociology department to be established in
the United Kingdom was at the
London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal of Sociology)
[4] in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the
Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by
Max Weber and in 1920 in
Poland by
Florian Znaniecki.
International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when
René Worms founded the ''
Institut International de Sociologie'' which was later eclipsed by the much larger
International Sociological Association (ISA) which was founded in 1949.
[5] In 1905, the
American Sociological Association, the world's largest
association of professional sociologists, was founded and in 1909 the ''Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie'' (
German Society for Sociology) was founded by
Ferdinand Tönnies and
Max Weber, among others.
Positivism and anti-positivism
:''Articles:
Positivism,
Sociological positivism, and
Antipositivism.''
Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by Comte , was to treat it in much the same manner as
natural science, applying the same methods and
methodology used in the natural sciences to study
social phenomena. The emphasis on
empiricism and the
scientific method sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as
philosophy. This methodological approach, called
positivism assumes that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method.
One push away from positivism was philosophical and political, such as in the
dialectical materialism based on
Marx's theories. A second push away from scientific positivism was cultural, even becoming sociological. As early as the 19th century,
positivist and
naturalist approaches to studying
social life were questioned by scientists like
Wilhelm Dilthey and
Heinrich Rickert, who argued that the natural world differs from the
social world because of unique aspects of human society such as
meanings,
symbols,
rules,
norms, and
values. These elements of society inform human
cultures. This view was further developed by
Max Weber, who introduced
antipositivism (
humanistic sociology). According to this view, which is closely related to
antinaturalism, sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values (see also:
French Pragmatism).
Twentieth century developments
In the early 20th century, sociology expanded in United States, including developments in both
macrosociology interested in
evolution of societies and
microsociology. Based on the
pragmatic social psychology of
George Herbert Mead,
Herbert Blumer and other later
Chicago school inspired sociologists developed
symbolic interactionism.
In Europe, in the
inter-war period, sociology generally was both attacked by increasingly totalitarian governments and rejected by conservative universities. At the same time, originally in Austria and later in the U.S.,
Alfred Schütz developed social
phenomenology (which would later inform
social constructionism). Also, members of
the Frankfurt school (some of whom moved to the U.S. to escape Nazi persecution) developed
critical theory, integrating critical, idealistic and historical materialistic elements of the
dialectical philosophies of
Hegel and
Marx with the insights of
Freud,
Max Weber (in theory, if not always in name) and others. In the 1930s in the U.S.,
Talcott Parsons developed
structural-functional theory which integrated the study of
social order and "objective" aspects of macro and micro structural factors.
Since
World War II, sociology has been revived in Europe, although during the
Stalin and
Mao eras it was suppressed in the
communist countries. In the mid-20th century, there was a general (but not universal) trend for American sociology to be more scientific in nature, due partly to the prominent influence at that time of
structural functionalism. Sociologists developed new types of
quantitative research and
qualitative research methods. In the second half of the
20th century, sociological research has been increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses. Parallel with the rise of various
social movements in the 1960s, theories emphasizing social struggle, including
conflict theory (which sought to counter
structural functionalism) and
neomarxist theories, began to receive more attention.
In the
late 20th century, some sociologists embraced
postmodern and
poststructuralist philosophies. Increasingly, many sociologists have used
qualitative and
ethnographic methods and become critical of the positivism in some social scientific approaches. Much like
cultural studies, some contemporary sociological studies have been influenced by the cultural changes of the
1960s, 20th century
Continental philosophy,
literary studies, and
interpretivism. Others have maintained more objective empirical perspectives, such as by articulating
neofunctionalism and
pure sociology. Others began to debate the nature of
globalization and the changing nature of social institutions. These developments have led some to reconceptualize basic sociological categories and theories. For instance, inspired by the thought of
Michel Foucault, power may be studied as dispersed throughout society in a wide variety of disciplinary cultural practices. In
political sociology, the power of the nation state may be seen as transforming due to the globalization of trade (and cultural exchanges) and the expanding influence of
international organizations (Nash 2000:1-4).
However, the positivist tradition is still alive and influential in sociology, as evidenced by the rise of
social networks as both a new paradigm that suggests paths to go beyond the traditional micro vs. macro or agency vs. structure debates and a new methodology. The influence of social network analysis is pervasive in many sociological subfields such as
economic sociology (see the work of
Harrison White or
Mark Granovetter for example),
organizational behavior, or
historical sociology.
Throughout the development of sociology, controversies have raged about how to emphasize or integrate concerns with
subjectivity,
objectivity,
intersubjectivity and practicality in theory and research. The extent to which sociology may be characterized as a '
science' has remained an area of considerable debate, which has addressed basic
ontological and
epistemological philosophical questions. One outcome of such disputes has been the ongoing formation of multidimensional theories of society, such as the continuing development of various types of
critical theory. Another outcome has been the formation of
public sociology, which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological analysis to various social groups.
Scope and topics of sociology
:''Selected general topics:
Discrimination,
Deviance and
social control, Migration,
Social action,
Social change,
Social class,
Social justice/
injustice,
Social order,
Social status,
Social stratification,
Socialization,
Society,
Sociological imagination,
Structure and agency,
Subfields of sociology''
Sociologists study society and social action by examining the groups and
social institutions people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and
business organizations. They also study the
social interactions of people and groups, trace the origin and growth of social processes, and analyze the influence of group
activities on individual members and vice versa. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving
social problems, working for
social justice and formulating public policy.
Sociologists research macro-
structures and processes that organize or affect society, such as
race or
ethnicity,
gender,
globalization, and
social class stratification. They study institutions such as the
family and social processes that represent
deviation from, or the breakdown of, social structures, including
crime and
divorce. And, they research micro-processes such as interpersonal interactions and the
socialization of individuals. Sociologists are also concerned with the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s daily life.
Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as
social stratification, social organization, and
social mobility; ethnic and
race relations;
education;
family;
social psychology;
urban,
rural,
political, and
comparative sociology;
sex roles and
relationships;
demography;
gerontology;
criminology; and
sociological practice. In short, sociologists study the many faces of society.
Although sociology was informed by Comte's conviction that sociology would sit at the apex of all the sciences, sociology today is identified as one of many
social sciences (such as
anthropology,
economics,
political science,
psychology, etc.). At times, sociology does integrate the insights of various disciplines, as do other social sciences. Initially, the discipline was concerned particularly with the organization of complex
industrial societies. In the past, anthropologists had methods that would have helped to study
cultural issues in a "more acute" way than sociologists.
[6] Recent sociologists, taking cues from anthropologists, have noted the "
Western emphasis" of the field. In response, sociology departments around the world are encouraging the study of many cultures and multi-national studies.
Sociological research
Main articles: social research
The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the social world in its many forms.
Quantitative methods and
qualitative methods are two main types of
social research methods. Sociologists often use
quantitative methods -- such as
social statistics or
network analysis - to investigate the structure of a social process or describe patterns in social relationships. Sociologists also often use
qualitative methods - such as focused
interviews, group discussions and
ethnographic methods - to investigate social processes. Sociologists also use applied research methods such as
evaluation research and
assessment.
Methods of sociological inquiry
Sociologists use many types of social research methods, including:
★ Archival research - Facts or factual evidences from a variety of records are compiled.
★ Content Analysis - The contents of books and
mass media are analyzed to study how people communicate and the messages people talk or write about.
★ Historical Method - This involves a continuous and systematic search for the information and knowledge about past events related to the life of a person, a group, society, or the world.
★ Experimental Research - The researcher isolates a single social process or social phenonena and uses the data to either confirm or construct social theory. The experiment is the best method for testing theory due to its extremely high internal validity. Participants, or subjects, are randomly assigned to various conditions or 'treatments', and then analyses are made between groups. Randomization allows the researcher to be sure that the treatment is having the effect on group differences and not some other extraneous factor.
★ Survey Research - The researcher obtains data from interviews, questionnaires, or similar feedback from a set of persons chosen (including random selection) to represent a particular population of interest. Survey items may be open-ended or closed-ended.
★ Life History - This is the study of the
personal life trajectories. Through a series of interviews, the researcher can probe into the decisive moments in their life or the various influences on their life.
★ Longitudinal study - This is an extensive examination of a specific group over a long period of time.
★ Observation - Using data from the senses, one records information about social phenomenon or behavior. Qualitative research relies heavily on observation, although it is in a highly disciplined form.
★ Participant Observation - As the name implies, the researcher goes to the field (usually a community), lives with the people for some time, and participates in their activities in order to know and feel their culture.
The choice of a method in part often depends on the researcher's epistemological approach to research. For example, those researchers who are concerned with statistical generalizability to a population will most likely administer structured interviews with a survey questionnaire to a carefully selected probability sample. By contrast, those sociologists, especially ethnographers, who are more interested in having a full contextual understanding of group members lives will choose
participant observation, observation, and
open-ended interviews. Many studies combine several of these methodologies.
The relative merits of these research methodologies is a topic of much professional debate among practicing sociologists.
Combining research methods
In practice, some sociologists combine different research methods and approaches, since different methods produce different types of findings that correspond to different aspects of societies. For example, the quantitative methods may help describe social
patterns, while qualitative approaches could help to understand how individuals understand those patterns.
An example of using multiple types of research methods is in the study of the
Internet. The Internet is of interest for sociologists in various ways: as a tool for
research, for example, in using
online questionnaires instead of paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic. Sociology of the Internet in the last sense includes analysis of
online communities (e.g. as found in
newsgroups),
virtual communities and
virtual worlds, organisational change catalysed through
new media like the Internet, and social change
at-large in the transformation from
industrial to
informational society (or to
information society). Online communities can be studied statistically through
network analysis and at the same time interpreted qualitatively, such as though
virtual ethnography. Social change can be studied through statistical
demographics or through the interpretation of changing messages and symbols in online
media studies.
Sociology and other social sciences
Sociology shares deep ties with a wide array of other disciplines that also deal with the study of society. The fields of
economics,
psychology, and
anthropology have influenced and have been influenced by sociology and these fields share a great amount of history and common research interests.
Today sociology and the other sciences are better contrasted according to methodology rather than objects of study. Additionally, unlike sociology, psychology and anthropology have
forensic components within these disciplines that deal with
anatomy and other types of laboratory research.
Sociobiology is the study of how
social behavior and organization has been influenced by
evolution and other
biological processes. The field blends sociology with a number other sciences, such as
anthropology,
biology,
zoology, and others. Although the field once rapidly gained acceptance, it has remained highly controversial within the sociological academy. Sociologists often criticize the study for depending too greatly on the effects of genes in defining behavior. Sociobiologists often respond by citing a complex relationship between
nature and nurture.
Sociology is also widely used in
management science, especially in the field of
organizational behavior.
Recent best-selling books such as ''The Tipping Point'' by
Malcolm Gladwell show a revived popular interest in the discipline of sociology.
See also
★
Anthropology
★
Criminology
★
Negotiated Order
★
Political science
★
Psychology
★
Social psychology
★
Social sciences
★
Socio-economics
★
Sociophysiology
★
Statistical survey
Lists
: ''Main lists:
List of basic sociology topics and
List of sociology topics''
★
List of scientific journals in sociology
★
List of sociologists
★
Subfields of sociology
★
List of important publications in sociology
★
Timeline of sociology
Footnotes
1. http://www.ku.edu/%7Esocdept/about/ University of Kansas Sociology Department Webpage
2. http://www.news.ku.edu/2005/June/June15/sociology.shtml University of Kansas News Story
3. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJS/home.html American Journal of Sociology Website
4. http://www.lse.ac.uk/serials/Bjs/ British Journal of Sociology Website
5. http://www.isa-sociology.org/ International Sociological Association Website
6.
★ Marc Abélès, ''How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field ''Cultural Anthropology'' 1999 p. 407
Bibliography
★ Aby, Stephen H. ''Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources, 3rd edn.'' Littleton, CO, Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1-56308-947-5
★ Macionis, John J. 2004. ''Sociology (10th Edition)''.
Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-184918-2
★ Nash, Kate. 2000. ''Contemporary Political Sociology: Globalization, Politics, and Power.'' Blackwell Publishers.
Further reading
★
Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology
★
Babbie, Earl R.. 2003. ''The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition.'' Wadsworth,
Thomson Learning Inc., ISBN 0-534-62029-9
★
Collins, Randall. 1994. ''Four Sociological Traditions.'' Oxford,
Oxford University Press
★
Giddens, Anthony. 2006. ''Sociology'' (5th edition), Polity, Cambridge.
★
Merton, Robert K.. ²1959. ''Social Theory and Social Structure. Toward the codification of theory and research'', Glencoe: Ill. (Revised and enlarged edition)
★
Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. ''The Sociological Tradition'', London, Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 1-56000-667-6
★
Ritzer, George and Douglas Goodman. 2004. ''Sociological Theory, Sixth Edition.''
McGraw Hill.
★ Wallace, Ruth A. & Alison Wolf. 1995. ''Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classical Tradition'', 4th ed., Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-036245-X
★
White, Harrison. 1992. ''Identity and Control. A Structural Theory of Social Action.'' Princeton,
Princeton University Press.
★ Willis, Evan. ³1996. ''The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life'',
New Brunswick, NJ,
Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2367-2
External links
Professional associations
★
African Sociological Association (AfSA)
★
American Sociological Association (ASA)
★
Australian Sociological Association (TASA)
★
British Sociological Association (BSA)
★
Canadian Sociological Association (CSA)
★
International Sociological Association (ISA)
★
Indian Sociological Society
★
Brazilian Sociological Society (SBS)
★
Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI)
Other resources
★
Electronic Journal of Sociology
★
SocioLog, a directory of sociology resources
★
SocioSite, a directory of sociology resources
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