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EspañolPARACHUTING
(Redirected from Skydiving)
'Parachuting' is an activity involving a preplanned drop from a height using a deployable parachute.
One type of parachuting is skydiving, which is recreational parachuting, also called sport parachuting.
The history of parachuting isn't clear. It's known that Andre-Jacques Garnerin made successful parachute jumps from a hot-air balloon in 1797. The military developed parachuting technology first as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight and later as a way of delivering soldiers to the battlefield. Early competitions date back to the 1930s, and it became an international sport in 1951.
Today it is performed as a recreational activity and a competitive sport, as well as for the deployment of military personnel and occasionally forest firefighters.
Typically, a trained skydiver (or jumper) and a group of associates meet at an isolated airport, sometimes referred to as a "drop zone." A fixed base operator at that airport usually operates one or more light cargo aircraft, and takes groups of skydivers up for a fee. In the earlier days of the sport, it was common for an individual jumper to go up in a Beech 18 or Douglas DC-3 aircraft for reasons of economy.
A typical jump involves individuals jumping out of aircraft (usually an airplane, but sometimes a helicopter or even the gondola of a balloon), travelling at approximately 4000 metres (around 13,000 feet) altitude, and free-falling for a period of time before activating a parachute to slow the landing down to safe speeds.
Once the parachute is opened, (usually the parachute will be fully inflated by 2,500 feet). the jumper can control his or her direction and speed with cords called "steering lines," with hand grips called "toggles" that are attached to the parachute, and so he or she can aim for the landing site and come to a relatively gentle stop in a safe landing environment.
Most modern sport parachutes are self-inflating "ram-air" wings that provide control of speed and direction similar to the related paragliders.
(Purists in either sport would note that paragliders have much greater lift and range, but that parachutes are designed to absorb the stresses of deployment at terminal velocity.)
Many skydivers skydive because it is the closest one can get to the dream of flying. Skydiving is the only aerial activity where the body is the flying instrument instead of a machine. By manipulating the shape of the body, as a pilot manipulates the shape of his aircraft's wings, turns, forward motion, backwards motion, and even lift can be generated. Experienced skydivers will tell someone that in freefall, one can do anything a bird can do, except go back up.
Skydivers generally do not experience a "falling" sensation due to the fact that they reach terminal velocity (around for belly to Earth orientations, 150-200 mph for head down orientations) and are no longer accelerating towards the ground. This lack of "falling" sensation does not exist when they leave the plane, as their momentum from the plane causes the acceleration forces to be slow as their direction of travel changes from the direction of the airplane's flight to the direction pulled by the force of gravity. Skydivers call this transition period "the hill", and the amount of distance they fly with the plane due to the momentum is called "forward throw". Acceleration is what causes the "stomach in your throat" feeling on a roller-coaster or other amusement park rides.
Most skydivers make their first jump with an experienced and trained instructor (this type of skydive may be in the form of a tandem skydive). During the tandem jump the jumpmaster is responsible for the stable exit, maintaining a proper stable freefall position, and activating and controlling the parachute. With training and experience, the fear of the first few jumps is supplanted by the tact of controlling fear so that one may come to experience the satisfaction of mastering aerial skills and performing increasingly complicated maneuvers in the sky with friends. Other training methods include static line, IAD (Instructor Assisted Deployment), and AFF (Accelerated Free-Fall) aka Progressive Free-Fall (PFF) in Canada. See below.
Parachuting has complex skills that can take thousands of jumps to master, but the basics are often fully understood and useful during the first few jumps. There are four basic areas of skill: basic safety, free fall maneuvers, parachute operation, and landing.
In freefall most skydivers start by learning to maintain a stable belly to earth "arch" position. In this position the average fall rate is around . Learning a stable arch position is a basic skill essential for a reliable parachute deployment. Next, jumpers learn to move or turn in any direction while remaining belly to earth. Using these skills a group of jumpers can create sequences of formations on a single jump, a discipline known as relative work (RW). In the late 1980s more experienced jumpers started experimenting with freeflying, falling in any orientation other than belly to earth. Today many jumpers start freeflying soon after they earn their license, bypassing the RW stepping stone.
The decision of when to deploy the parachute is a matter of safety. A parachute should be deployed sufficiently high to give the parachutist time to handle a malfunction, should one occur. Two thousand feet is the practical minimum for advanced skydivers.[1] Skydivers monitor their altimeters during freefall to decide when to break off from the formation (if applicable) and when to open their parachutes. Many skydivers open higher to practice their parachute flying skills. During a "hop-and-pop", a jump in which the parachute is deployed immediately upon exiting the aircraft, it is not uncommon to be under canopy as high as 4000 or 5000 feet.
Parachute flying involves two basic challenges. Firstly to avoid injury and secondly to land where planned, often on a designated target. Some experienced skydivers enjoy performing aerobatic maneuvers with parachutes, the most notable being the "Swoop". This is a thrilling, but dangerous maneuver entailing a steep, high speed landing approach, before leveling off a couple of feet above the ground to maintain a fast glide parallel to the surface. Swoops as far as have been achieved.
A modern parachute or canopy "wing" can glide substantial distances. Elliptical canopies go faster and farther, and some small, highly loaded canopies glide faster than a man can run, which can make them very challenging to land. A highly experienced skydiver using a very small canopy can achieve over horizontal speeds in landing.
A good landing will not present any discomfort and land the skydiver within a few feet of his intended location. In competitions, champion accuracy skydivers routinely land less than two inches from the center of a target.
Today, the majority of skydiving related injuries happen under a fully opened and functioning parachute. The most common causes being poorly-executed, radical maneuvers near to the ground, such as hook turns, or landing flares performed either too high or too low.
Despite the perception of danger, fatalities are rare. However, each year a number of people are hurt or killed parachuting world-wide.[2][3] About 30 skydivers are killed each year in the US; roughly one death for every 100,000 jumps.[4]
In the US and in most of the western world skydivers are required to carry a second, reserve parachute which has been inspected and packed by a certificated parachute rigger (in the US, an FAA certificated parachute rigger). Many skydivers use an automatic activation device (AAD) that opens the reserve parachute at a safe altitude in the event of failing to activate the main canopy themselves. Skydivers may also carry a visual altimeter. Some also use one or more audible altimeters as well.
In recent years, one of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy and while swooping. Swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding parallel to the ground during landing.
Changing wind conditions are another risk factor. In conditions of strong winds, and turbulence during hot days the parachutist can be caught in downdrafts close to the ground. Shifting winds can cause a crosswind or downwind landing which have a higher potential for injury due to the wind speed adding to the landing speed.
Equipment failure rarely causes fatalities and injuries. While approximately one in 600 jumps results in a main parachute malfunction, reserve canopies are packed by an FAA licensed rigger and are designed to be highly reliable.
Parachuting disciplines such as BASE jumping or those that involve equipment such as wing suit flying and sky surfing have a higher risk factor due to the lower mobility of the jumper and the greater risk of entanglement. For this reason these disciplines are generally practiced by experienced jumpers.
It is worth noting that depictions in commercial films — notably Hollywood action movies — usually understate the dangers of the sport. Often, the characters in such films are shown performing feats that are physically impossible without special effects assistance. In other cases, their practices would cause them to be grounded or shunned at any safety-conscious drop zone or club. USPA member drop zones in the US and Canada are required to have an experienced jumper act as a "safety officer" (in Canada DSO - Drop Zone Safety Officer; in the U.S. S&TA - Safety and Training Advisor) who is responsible for dealing with the jumpers who violate rules, regulations, or otherwise act in a fashion deemed unsafe by the appointed individual.
In many countries, either the local regulations or the liability-conscious prudence of the dropzone owners require that parachutists must have attained the age of majority before engaging in the sport.
There are several different disciplines to embrace within parachuting.
Each of these is enjoyed by both the recreational (weekend) and the competitive participants. There is even a small group of professionals who earn their living with parachuting. They win competitions having cash prizes or are employed or sponsored by skydiving related manufacturers.
Parachutists can participate both in competitive and in purely recreational skydiving events.
World championships are held regularly in locations offering flat terrain and clear skies.
An exception is Paraski, where winter weather and ski-hill terrain are required.
Types of parachuting include:
★ Accuracy landing - Landing as close as possible to a target.
★ BASE jumping - From buildings, antennas, bridges (spans) and cliffs (earth).
★ Blade running - A kind of slalom with parachute.
★ Big-ways - Formation skydiving with many people.
★ Canopy formation - Making formations with other parachutists while under canopies. (Known also as canopy relative work or simply CRW)
★ Canopy piloting - Also known as 'swooping'.
★ Formation skydiving - Making formations during freefall. (Known also as relative work or simply RW)
★ Freefall cinematography
★ Freefall style
★ Freeflying
★ Freestyle skydiving
★ Military Parachuting
★
★ HALO/HAHO
★
★ Treejumping
★ Para-ski
★ Skysurfing - Skydiving with a board strapped to one's feet.
★ Vertical Formation Skydiving - a subset of Formation skydiving that uses high-speed freeflying body positions instead of bellyflying. (Known also as VRW)
★ Wingsuit flying - Skydiving with a suit which provides extra lift.
There are ways to practice different aspects of skydiving, without actually jumping. Vertical wind tunnels can be used to practice skills for free fall ("indoor skydiving" or "bodyflight"), while virtual reality parachute simulators can be used to practice parachute control.
Beginning skydivers seeking training have a few different options available to them:
★ Tandem skydiving
★ Static line
★ Instructor Assisted Deployment
★ Accelerated Freefall
A unique program where students accomplish their very first jump as a solo freefall is offered at the United States Air Force Academy. The program is called AM490, one in a series of airmanship courses at the school. While typically open only to cadets, Winfield W. Scott Jr., the school's superintendent, went through this program when he was nearly 60 years old.
At a skydiver's designated deployment-altitude; the individual throws the pilotchute from a pocket at the bottom of the rig (the backpack-like container holding both parachutes, a.k.a. canopies). This is known as a bottom of container (B.O.C.) deployment system. This small parachute is connected to the main parachute by a cord known as the "bridle" which feeds through a grommet on a small bag - the deployment bag (or d-bag) which has the folded parachute inside and the lines stowed through rubber bands across the top. At the bottom of the container's tray which holds the main parachute is a loop which, in the closing sequence of the parachute system, is fed through grommets on each of four flaps that closes the container.
Attached to the bridle is a curved pin which is inserted through the closing loop after it has been fed through each of these grommets. When the pilotchute is thrown out, it catches the wind and pulls the pin out of the closing loop, releasing the deployment bag from the container worn by the skydiver (who is ideally in the stable belly-towards-earth arched position). The parachute lines are pulled loose from rubber bands, through which they were stowed during packing, and extend as the canopy starts to open. To reduce the risk of injury, a rectangular piece of fabric called the "slider" (which separates the parachute lines into four main groups fed through grommets in the four respective corners of the slider) slows the opening of the parachute and works its way down until the canopy is fully open and the slider is just above the head of the skydiver. During a normal deployment, a skydiver will generally experience a few seconds of intense deceleration, in the realm of 3 to 4 G's, while the parachute slows the descent from to approximately .
If a skydiver experiences a malfunction with their main parachute which they cannot correct, they have a "cut-away" handle on the front right-hand side of their container (on the chest) which will release the main canopy from the container. Once free from the malfunctioning main canopy, the reserve canopy can be activated by pulling a second handle on the front left (sometimes triggered by a Reserve Static Line (RSL) which, if present, will deploy the spring loaded Reserve Canopy located in the top of the container immediately after the main is cut away). A new type of RSL has been developed called the Skyhook. This new system uses the "cut-away" canopy to act as a very large pilot chute to more quickly extract the reserve canopy. The Skyhook is an incredibly fast system that has the jumper under the reserve canopy and flying within 2 seconds (compared to the 5-10 seconds of the old system).
In addition to the various "disciplines", for which people actually train and purchase specialized equipment and get coaching, the recreational skydiver finds ways to just have fun.
One example of this is "Hit and Rock", which is a variant of Accuracy landing devised to let people of varying skill-levels "compete" for fun, while spoofing the age and abilities of some participants. "Hit and Rock" is originally from POPS (Parachutists Over Phorty Society). See the POPS Main site
The object now becomes: to land as close as possible to the chair, doff the parachute harness, sprint to the chair, sit fully in the chair and rock back and forth at least one time. The contestant is timed from the moment that feet touch the ground until that first rock is completed. This event is considered a race.
Pond swooping is a form of competitive parachuting wherein canopy pilots attempt to touch down at a glide across a small body of water, and onto the shore. Events provide lighthearted competition rating accuracy, speed, distance and style. Points and peer approval are reduced when a participant "chows," or fails to reach shore and sinks into the water.
Very similar to Hit and Rock, except the target is replaced by a case of beer. Jumpers are timed from the moment their feet touch the ground until they chug the can of beer and place the empty can upside-down on their head.
Of course, it must be mentioned that dropzones enforce strict rules prohibiting anyone from jumping any more that day once alcohol has been consumed. Therefore, the Swoop & Chug (aka Hit & Chug) is usually reserved for the last load of the day.
A cross-country jump refers to a skydive where the participants open their parachutes immediately after jumping, with the intention of covering as much ground under canopy as possible. Usual distance from Jump Run to the DZ is .
Tracking is assuming a body position that maximizes horizontal speed while minimising vertical speed. It is most commonly used at the end of freefall to gain enough separation from other skydivers for a safe parachute deployment.
A tracking dive is a skydive where the intention is to track for the entire duration of freefall. One person, usually the most experienced tracker, is designated the leader (or "rabbit"). The rabbit directs the direction of the group and maintains the group's tracking speed. Other participants chase the rabbit and try to maintain a relative position.
Main articles: Freeflying/Tracking
In camera flying, a cameraman jumps with other skydivers and films them. The camera flyer often wears specialized equipment, such as a winged jumpsuit to provide a greater range of fallrates, helmet-mounted video and still cameras, mouth operated camera switches, and special optical sights. Some skydivers specialize in camera flying and a few earn significant fees for filming students on coached jumps or tandem-jumpers, or producing professional footage and photographs for the media.
There is always a demand for good camera flyers in the skydiving community, as many of the competitive skydiving disciplines are judged from a video record.
Skydiving is not always restricted to daytime hours. Experienced skydivers sometimes perform night jumps. For obvious safety reasons, this requires more equipment than a usual daytime jump and in most jurisdictions requires both an advanced skydiving license (at least a B-License in the U.S.) and specialized training (night rating). A lighted altimeter (preferably accompanied with an audible altimeter) is a must. Skydivers performing night jumps often take flashlights up with them so that they can check their canopies once they deploy, so they can be assured that the canopy has opened correctly and is safe to fly and land. Visibility to other skydivers and other aircraft is also a consideration; FAA regulations require skydivers jumping at night to be wearing a light visible for three miles (5 km) in every direction, and to turn it on once they are under canopy.
Skydivers are always looking for something new to do in the air. With the availability of a rear door aircraft and a large, unpopulated space to jump over 'stuff' jumps become possible. In these jumps the skydivers jump out with some object. Rubber raft jumps are popular, where the jumpers sit in a rubber raft. Cars, bikes, motorcycles, water tanks and inflatable companions have also been thrown out the back of an aircraft. At a certain height the jumpers break off from the object and deploy their parachutes, leaving it to crash into the ground at a very high speed.
National parachuting associations exist in many countries (many affiliated with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)), to promote their sport.
In most cases, national representative bodies, as well as prudent local dropzone operators, require that participants carry certification, attesting to their training, their level of experience in the sport, and their proven competence. Anyone who cannot produce such bona-fides is treated as a student, requiring close supervision.
The primary organization in the United States is the United States Parachute Association (USPA)[1]. This organization hands out licenses and ratings for all American skydiving activities based on safety qualifications. The USPA governs safety in the sport of skydiving as this is the organizations sole responsibility and also publishes the Skydivers Information Manual (SIM) and many other resources. In Canada, the Canadian Sport Parachuting Association is the lead organization. In South Africa the sport is managed by the Parachute Association of South Africa.
Within the sport, associations promote safety, technical advances, training-and-certification, competition and other interests of their members. Outside their respective communities, they promote their sport to the public, and often intercede with government regulators.
Competitions are organized at regional, national and international levels in most these disciplines. Some of them offer amateur competition.
Many of the more photogenic/videogenic variants also enjoy sponsored events with prize money for the winners.
The majority of jumpers tend to be non-competitive, enjoying the opportunity to "get some air" with their friends on weekends and holidays.
The atmosphere of their gatherings is relaxed, sociable and welcoming to newcomers.
Party events, called "boogies" are arranged at local, national and international scale, each year, attracting both the enthusiastic young jumpers and many of their elders -- Parachutists Over Phorty (POPs), Skydivers Over Sixty (SOS) and even older groups who have yet to choose a catchy name for themselves.
Famous people associated with this sport include Valery Rozov, a gold medalist from the 1998 X Games, who has had more than 1,500 jumps. Georgia Thompson("Tiny") Broadwick is one of the first American skydivers, and she made the first freefall.
At larger centers, mostly in the "Sun Belt" region of the United States, training in the sport is often conducted by professional instructors and coaches at commercial establishments. The advantages to the newcomer are year-round availability, larger aircraft (which translates to greater comfort, higher jump altitudes, and more frequent jumping), and staff who are very current in both their sport and their instructional skills.
In the other latitudes, where winter (or monsoon) gets in the way of year-round operation, commercial skydiving centers are less prevalent and much of the parachuting activity is carried on by clubs. Most clubs cannot support larger aircraft. Training may be offered (by volunteer instructors who, nevertheless, are tested and certified in exactly the same way as their commercial counterparts) only in occasional classes as demand warrants. These clubs are usually weekend only operations as the volunteers have full-time jobs during the week. The entire experience tends to be informal and surrounded by a lot of socializing.
Some observers have suggested that commercial operations cater to a "fast-food" sensibility that leaves their novice graduates with very compartmentalized skill sets that may be lacking in important peripheral areas.
This is countered by the observation that students at busy commercial operations receive concentrated exposure and experience, and are thus able to improve rapidly without backtracking or developing bad habits.
The observation about participants who started learning in the club setting is that their progression can be slower due to smaller aircraft and fewer "good jumping days" (weather).
They may experience some backsliding as they need to re-learn some skills after weather-enforced lay-offs.
By contrast, the progression of a novice in a club usually involves learning all the ancillary skills out of necessity.
Everyone at a club learns all the skills and takes on all the roles.
For example, a large aircraft must be "spotted" (directed to fly over the optimum exit point) by an experienced jumper who is usually a parachute-center staffer.
Having experienced staff perform this duty ensures that everybody leaves the aircraft within range of the landing zone.
Nobody needs to hike or take a taxi back to the dropzone because their jumprun was spotted by a novice.
The downside is that the novices never learn the skill of reading the winds, the terrain and the aircraft movement, and of directing the aircraft where it should go. They remain dependent on the "pro."
At clubs, the aircraft are smaller, and everybody is a friend.
A bad spot is an excuse for some teasing, but it doesn't interrupt the smooth flow of a moneymaking operation.
Therefore, most people who join parachuting clubs are taught spotting skills very early in their careers. Similar contrasts apply to parachute packing, equipment maintenance and other skills of a well-rounded skydiver.
The answer to both sets of critics is that they are correct as far as they go. The perceived shortcomings of each learning environment are ameliorated by the fact that most skydivers eventually partake of both settings.
Club members often visit larger centers for holidays and events and for some concentrated exposure to the latest techniques.
People who learned at commercial centers often make friends with visiting club jumpers and then visit them at their home dropzones -- or start their own clubs.
Drop Zones often have distinct cultures or traditions and their are many skydiving traditions that are practiced at drop zones all over the world. Most dropzones have a "beer line" a parimeter around the landing area often marked by flags. When an experienced skydiver crosses over the beer line when landing or if their parachute crosses over the beer line they are required by tradition to buy a case of beer for the other experienced skydivers at the drop zone. Other events often prompt beer buying. For instance when an A license is achieved the licensee is expected to buy a case of beer for other experienced skydivers for them to get to know each other over. Often the beer tally is announced over the loud speakers from the manifest. Often on the weekends experienced skydivers party and drink the owed beers in the hanger or around a bonfire sometimes musicians are brought in for more busy times of the year especially during Boogies. Boogies are huge jumping parties that often last a few days and evolve entertainment and special food at night and special skydiving events during the day. It is important to know that beer drinking activities are kept strictly separate from jumping activities and skydivers are mostly acutely conscious of safety.
Other traditions include wearing jumpsuits with particularly bright colors and bold designs along with eye catching parachutes. It is tradition that when one archives 100 jumps they are pied and thrown in the swooping pond by their experienced skydiver friends. Among skydivers It is common to make jokes about jumping out of a 'perfectly good airplane'. It is common for many instructors and skydiving enthusiasts to camp out at the drop zone promoting these traditions.
Costs in the sport are not trivial. As new technological advances or performance enhancements are introduced, they tend to nudge equipment prices higher. Similarly, the average skydiver carries more equipment than in earlier years, with safety devices (such as an automatic reserve activation device) contributing a significant portion of the cost.
A full set of brand-new equipment can easily cost as much as a new motorcycle or half a small car.
The market is not large enough to permit the commoditization and price-erosion that is seen in other technologically intensive industries (like the computer industry).
In many countries, the sport supports a substantial used-equipment market.
For many beginners, especially those with limited funds, that is the preferred way to acquire "gear", and has two advantages:
★ First, they can try different types of parachutes (there are many) to learn which style they prefer, before paying the price for new equipment.
★ Second, they can acquire a complete system and all the peripheral items in a short time and at reduced cost.
Novices generally start with parachutes that are large and docile relative to the jumper's body-weight. As they improve in skill and confidence, it is customary to graduate to smaller, faster, more responsive parachutes.
An active jumper might change parachute canopies several times in the space of a few years, while retaining his or her first harness/container and peripheral equipment.
Older jumpers, especially those who jump only on weekends in summer, sometimes tend in the other direction, selecting slightly larger, more gentle parachutes that do not demand youthful intensity and reflexes on each jump.
They may be adhering to the maxim that: "There are old jumpers and there are bold jumpers, but there are no old, and bold jumpers."
Most parachuting equipment is ruggedly designed and is enjoyed by several owners before being retired. Purchasers are always advised to have any potential purchases examined by a qualified parachute rigger.
A rigger is trained to spot signs of damage or misuse.
Riggers also keep track of industry product and safety bulletins, and can therefore determine if a piece of equipment is up-to-date and serviceable.
World's largest freefall formation: 400.
This record was set February 8, 2006 in Udon Thani, Thailand.
World's largest canopy formation: 85.
This record was set November 26, 2005 in Lake Wales Florida USA.
[2]
Don Kellner holds the record for the most parachute jumps, with a total of over 36,000 jumps.[3]
Cheryl Stearns (USA) holds the record for the most parachute descents by a woman, with a total of 15,560 in August 2003.
Capt. Joe W. Kittinger achieved the highest parachute jump in history on August 16, 1960 as part of a United States Air Force program testing high-altitude escape systems. Wearing a pressure suit, Capt. Kittinger ascended for an hour and a half in an open gondola attached to a balloon to an altitude of , where he then jumped. The fall lasted 4 minutes and 36 seconds, during which Capt. Kittinger reached speeds exceeding 700 miles per hour. The air in the upper atmosphere is less dense and thus leads to lower air-resistance and a much higher terminal velocity.
Adrian Nicholas holds the record for the longest freefall. A 4 minutes and 55 seconds wingsuit jump made on March 12 1999.
[4]
Jay Stokes holds the record for most parachute descents in a single day at 640.
[5]
Hildegarde Ferrea is the oldest person to have completed a skydive jump - at the age of 99 years old. She completed her tandem jump on February 17, 1996 at Dillingham Field in Oahu, Hawaii [The Honolulu Advertiser, Wednesday, March 6, 1996].
★ drop zone
★ parachute
★ free-fall
★ tandem skydiving
★ ''Danish Freefall Simulator Project - DFSP'' (First indoor vertical wind tunnel in Northern Europe)
★ SkydivingMagazine.com Monthly international magazine about the equipment, techniques, people, places and events of sport parachuting.
★ SkydivingMovies.com Large public skydiving video database, user-uploadable.
★ Skydive Radio The world's first and only podcast dedicated to skydiving.
★ FAI The Federation Aeronautique Internationale -- The international governing body for all airborne sports, including skydiving.
★ USPA The United States Parachute Association -- The governing body for sport skydiving in the U.S.
★ CSPA The Canadian Sport Parachuting Association -- The governing body for sport skydiving in Canada.
★ BPA The British Parachute Association -- The governing body for sport skydiving in the United Kingdom.
★ Article on about.com History, Design, and Information about parachutes.
★ FFU Skydiving Articles Articles about various disciplines in the sport.
★ Red Cross Appeal Week skydiving stunt The Britchicks will be raising money for the British Red Cross by attempting to beat the British women's formation record.
★ Australian Parachute Federation The Australian Parachute Federation - The governing body for sport skydiving in Australia
★ Airtite Airtite - The Australian Representative 4-Way Skydiving Team
★ Information about military parachuting
★ Malone, Jo (June, 2000). Birth of Freefly. ''Skydive the Mag''.
1. http://www.uspa.org/publications/SIM/2007SIM/section2.htm#21g
2. Fatality statistics
3. dropzone.com statistics
4. How skydiving works
Skydiver about to land
'Parachuting' is an activity involving a preplanned drop from a height using a deployable parachute.
One type of parachuting is skydiving, which is recreational parachuting, also called sport parachuting.
The history of parachuting isn't clear. It's known that Andre-Jacques Garnerin made successful parachute jumps from a hot-air balloon in 1797. The military developed parachuting technology first as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight and later as a way of delivering soldiers to the battlefield. Early competitions date back to the 1930s, and it became an international sport in 1951.
Today it is performed as a recreational activity and a competitive sport, as well as for the deployment of military personnel and occasionally forest firefighters.
Procedure
Typically, a trained skydiver (or jumper) and a group of associates meet at an isolated airport, sometimes referred to as a "drop zone." A fixed base operator at that airport usually operates one or more light cargo aircraft, and takes groups of skydivers up for a fee. In the earlier days of the sport, it was common for an individual jumper to go up in a Beech 18 or Douglas DC-3 aircraft for reasons of economy.
Skydiving Beech 18 was once a mainstay at drop zones
A typical jump involves individuals jumping out of aircraft (usually an airplane, but sometimes a helicopter or even the gondola of a balloon), travelling at approximately 4000 metres (around 13,000 feet) altitude, and free-falling for a period of time before activating a parachute to slow the landing down to safe speeds.
Once the parachute is opened, (usually the parachute will be fully inflated by 2,500 feet). the jumper can control his or her direction and speed with cords called "steering lines," with hand grips called "toggles" that are attached to the parachute, and so he or she can aim for the landing site and come to a relatively gentle stop in a safe landing environment.
Most modern sport parachutes are self-inflating "ram-air" wings that provide control of speed and direction similar to the related paragliders.
(Purists in either sport would note that paragliders have much greater lift and range, but that parachutes are designed to absorb the stresses of deployment at terminal velocity.)
4-way formation skydive
Many skydivers skydive because it is the closest one can get to the dream of flying. Skydiving is the only aerial activity where the body is the flying instrument instead of a machine. By manipulating the shape of the body, as a pilot manipulates the shape of his aircraft's wings, turns, forward motion, backwards motion, and even lift can be generated. Experienced skydivers will tell someone that in freefall, one can do anything a bird can do, except go back up.
Skydivers generally do not experience a "falling" sensation due to the fact that they reach terminal velocity (around for belly to Earth orientations, 150-200 mph for head down orientations) and are no longer accelerating towards the ground. This lack of "falling" sensation does not exist when they leave the plane, as their momentum from the plane causes the acceleration forces to be slow as their direction of travel changes from the direction of the airplane's flight to the direction pulled by the force of gravity. Skydivers call this transition period "the hill", and the amount of distance they fly with the plane due to the momentum is called "forward throw". Acceleration is what causes the "stomach in your throat" feeling on a roller-coaster or other amusement park rides.
Most skydivers make their first jump with an experienced and trained instructor (this type of skydive may be in the form of a tandem skydive). During the tandem jump the jumpmaster is responsible for the stable exit, maintaining a proper stable freefall position, and activating and controlling the parachute. With training and experience, the fear of the first few jumps is supplanted by the tact of controlling fear so that one may come to experience the satisfaction of mastering aerial skills and performing increasingly complicated maneuvers in the sky with friends. Other training methods include static line, IAD (Instructor Assisted Deployment), and AFF (Accelerated Free-Fall) aka Progressive Free-Fall (PFF) in Canada. See below.
Skills
Skydivers walking to a Cessna 208 on Texel
Parachuting has complex skills that can take thousands of jumps to master, but the basics are often fully understood and useful during the first few jumps. There are four basic areas of skill: basic safety, free fall maneuvers, parachute operation, and landing.
Free-fall maneuvers
In freefall most skydivers start by learning to maintain a stable belly to earth "arch" position. In this position the average fall rate is around . Learning a stable arch position is a basic skill essential for a reliable parachute deployment. Next, jumpers learn to move or turn in any direction while remaining belly to earth. Using these skills a group of jumpers can create sequences of formations on a single jump, a discipline known as relative work (RW). In the late 1980s more experienced jumpers started experimenting with freeflying, falling in any orientation other than belly to earth. Today many jumpers start freeflying soon after they earn their license, bypassing the RW stepping stone.
Parachute operation and landing
The decision of when to deploy the parachute is a matter of safety. A parachute should be deployed sufficiently high to give the parachutist time to handle a malfunction, should one occur. Two thousand feet is the practical minimum for advanced skydivers.[1] Skydivers monitor their altimeters during freefall to decide when to break off from the formation (if applicable) and when to open their parachutes. Many skydivers open higher to practice their parachute flying skills. During a "hop-and-pop", a jump in which the parachute is deployed immediately upon exiting the aircraft, it is not uncommon to be under canopy as high as 4000 or 5000 feet.
White sand circular target at a drop zone
A modern parachute or canopy "wing" can glide substantial distances. Elliptical canopies go faster and farther, and some small, highly loaded canopies glide faster than a man can run, which can make them very challenging to land. A highly experienced skydiver using a very small canopy can achieve over horizontal speeds in landing.
A good landing will not present any discomfort and land the skydiver within a few feet of his intended location. In competitions, champion accuracy skydivers routinely land less than two inches from the center of a target.
Today, the majority of skydiving related injuries happen under a fully opened and functioning parachute. The most common causes being poorly-executed, radical maneuvers near to the ground, such as hook turns, or landing flares performed either too high or too low.
Safety
Despite the perception of danger, fatalities are rare. However, each year a number of people are hurt or killed parachuting world-wide.[2][3] About 30 skydivers are killed each year in the US; roughly one death for every 100,000 jumps.[4]
In the US and in most of the western world skydivers are required to carry a second, reserve parachute which has been inspected and packed by a certificated parachute rigger (in the US, an FAA certificated parachute rigger). Many skydivers use an automatic activation device (AAD) that opens the reserve parachute at a safe altitude in the event of failing to activate the main canopy themselves. Skydivers may also carry a visual altimeter. Some also use one or more audible altimeters as well.
In recent years, one of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy and while swooping. Swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding parallel to the ground during landing.
Changing wind conditions are another risk factor. In conditions of strong winds, and turbulence during hot days the parachutist can be caught in downdrafts close to the ground. Shifting winds can cause a crosswind or downwind landing which have a higher potential for injury due to the wind speed adding to the landing speed.
Equipment failure rarely causes fatalities and injuries. While approximately one in 600 jumps results in a main parachute malfunction, reserve canopies are packed by an FAA licensed rigger and are designed to be highly reliable.
Parachuting disciplines such as BASE jumping or those that involve equipment such as wing suit flying and sky surfing have a higher risk factor due to the lower mobility of the jumper and the greater risk of entanglement. For this reason these disciplines are generally practiced by experienced jumpers.
It is worth noting that depictions in commercial films — notably Hollywood action movies — usually understate the dangers of the sport. Often, the characters in such films are shown performing feats that are physically impossible without special effects assistance. In other cases, their practices would cause them to be grounded or shunned at any safety-conscious drop zone or club. USPA member drop zones in the US and Canada are required to have an experienced jumper act as a "safety officer" (in Canada DSO - Drop Zone Safety Officer; in the U.S. S&TA - Safety and Training Advisor) who is responsible for dealing with the jumpers who violate rules, regulations, or otherwise act in a fashion deemed unsafe by the appointed individual.
In many countries, either the local regulations or the liability-conscious prudence of the dropzone owners require that parachutists must have attained the age of majority before engaging in the sport.
Types
There are several different disciplines to embrace within parachuting.
Each of these is enjoyed by both the recreational (weekend) and the competitive participants. There is even a small group of professionals who earn their living with parachuting. They win competitions having cash prizes or are employed or sponsored by skydiving related manufacturers.
Parachutists can participate both in competitive and in purely recreational skydiving events.
World championships are held regularly in locations offering flat terrain and clear skies.
An exception is Paraski, where winter weather and ski-hill terrain are required.
Types of parachuting include:
★ Accuracy landing - Landing as close as possible to a target.
★ BASE jumping - From buildings, antennas, bridges (spans) and cliffs (earth).
★ Blade running - A kind of slalom with parachute.
★ Big-ways - Formation skydiving with many people.
★ Canopy formation - Making formations with other parachutists while under canopies. (Known also as canopy relative work or simply CRW)
★ Canopy piloting - Also known as 'swooping'.
★ Formation skydiving - Making formations during freefall. (Known also as relative work or simply RW)
★ Freefall cinematography
★ Freefall style
★ Freeflying
★ Freestyle skydiving
★ Military Parachuting
★
★ HALO/HAHO
★
★ Treejumping
★ Para-ski
★ Skysurfing - Skydiving with a board strapped to one's feet.
★ Vertical Formation Skydiving - a subset of Formation skydiving that uses high-speed freeflying body positions instead of bellyflying. (Known also as VRW)
★ Wingsuit flying - Skydiving with a suit which provides extra lift.
Training
There are ways to practice different aspects of skydiving, without actually jumping. Vertical wind tunnels can be used to practice skills for free fall ("indoor skydiving" or "bodyflight"), while virtual reality parachute simulators can be used to practice parachute control.
Beginning skydivers seeking training have a few different options available to them:
★ Tandem skydiving
★ Static line
★ Instructor Assisted Deployment
★ Accelerated Freefall
A unique program where students accomplish their very first jump as a solo freefall is offered at the United States Air Force Academy. The program is called AM490, one in a series of airmanship courses at the school. While typically open only to cadets, Winfield W. Scott Jr., the school's superintendent, went through this program when he was nearly 60 years old.
Parachute deployment
At a skydiver's designated deployment-altitude; the individual throws the pilotchute from a pocket at the bottom of the rig (the backpack-like container holding both parachutes, a.k.a. canopies). This is known as a bottom of container (B.O.C.) deployment system. This small parachute is connected to the main parachute by a cord known as the "bridle" which feeds through a grommet on a small bag - the deployment bag (or d-bag) which has the folded parachute inside and the lines stowed through rubber bands across the top. At the bottom of the container's tray which holds the main parachute is a loop which, in the closing sequence of the parachute system, is fed through grommets on each of four flaps that closes the container.
Attached to the bridle is a curved pin which is inserted through the closing loop after it has been fed through each of these grommets. When the pilotchute is thrown out, it catches the wind and pulls the pin out of the closing loop, releasing the deployment bag from the container worn by the skydiver (who is ideally in the stable belly-towards-earth arched position). The parachute lines are pulled loose from rubber bands, through which they were stowed during packing, and extend as the canopy starts to open. To reduce the risk of injury, a rectangular piece of fabric called the "slider" (which separates the parachute lines into four main groups fed through grommets in the four respective corners of the slider) slows the opening of the parachute and works its way down until the canopy is fully open and the slider is just above the head of the skydiver. During a normal deployment, a skydiver will generally experience a few seconds of intense deceleration, in the realm of 3 to 4 G's, while the parachute slows the descent from to approximately .
If a skydiver experiences a malfunction with their main parachute which they cannot correct, they have a "cut-away" handle on the front right-hand side of their container (on the chest) which will release the main canopy from the container. Once free from the malfunctioning main canopy, the reserve canopy can be activated by pulling a second handle on the front left (sometimes triggered by a Reserve Static Line (RSL) which, if present, will deploy the spring loaded Reserve Canopy located in the top of the container immediately after the main is cut away). A new type of RSL has been developed called the Skyhook. This new system uses the "cut-away" canopy to act as a very large pilot chute to more quickly extract the reserve canopy. The Skyhook is an incredibly fast system that has the jumper under the reserve canopy and flying within 2 seconds (compared to the 5-10 seconds of the old system).
Variations
In addition to the various "disciplines", for which people actually train and purchase specialized equipment and get coaching, the recreational skydiver finds ways to just have fun.
Hit and rock
One example of this is "Hit and Rock", which is a variant of Accuracy landing devised to let people of varying skill-levels "compete" for fun, while spoofing the age and abilities of some participants. "Hit and Rock" is originally from POPS (Parachutists Over Phorty Society). See the POPS Main site
The object now becomes: to land as close as possible to the chair, doff the parachute harness, sprint to the chair, sit fully in the chair and rock back and forth at least one time. The contestant is timed from the moment that feet touch the ground until that first rock is completed. This event is considered a race.
Pond swooping
Pond swooping is a form of competitive parachuting wherein canopy pilots attempt to touch down at a glide across a small body of water, and onto the shore. Events provide lighthearted competition rating accuracy, speed, distance and style. Points and peer approval are reduced when a participant "chows," or fails to reach shore and sinks into the water.
Swoop and chug
Very similar to Hit and Rock, except the target is replaced by a case of beer. Jumpers are timed from the moment their feet touch the ground until they chug the can of beer and place the empty can upside-down on their head.
Of course, it must be mentioned that dropzones enforce strict rules prohibiting anyone from jumping any more that day once alcohol has been consumed. Therefore, the Swoop & Chug (aka Hit & Chug) is usually reserved for the last load of the day.
Cross-Country
A cross-country jump refers to a skydive where the participants open their parachutes immediately after jumping, with the intention of covering as much ground under canopy as possible. Usual distance from Jump Run to the DZ is .
Tracking jump
Tracking is assuming a body position that maximizes horizontal speed while minimising vertical speed. It is most commonly used at the end of freefall to gain enough separation from other skydivers for a safe parachute deployment.
A tracking dive is a skydive where the intention is to track for the entire duration of freefall. One person, usually the most experienced tracker, is designated the leader (or "rabbit"). The rabbit directs the direction of the group and maintains the group's tracking speed. Other participants chase the rabbit and try to maintain a relative position.
Main articles: Freeflying/Tracking
Camera flying
In camera flying, a cameraman jumps with other skydivers and films them. The camera flyer often wears specialized equipment, such as a winged jumpsuit to provide a greater range of fallrates, helmet-mounted video and still cameras, mouth operated camera switches, and special optical sights. Some skydivers specialize in camera flying and a few earn significant fees for filming students on coached jumps or tandem-jumpers, or producing professional footage and photographs for the media.
There is always a demand for good camera flyers in the skydiving community, as many of the competitive skydiving disciplines are judged from a video record.
Night jumps
Skydiving is not always restricted to daytime hours. Experienced skydivers sometimes perform night jumps. For obvious safety reasons, this requires more equipment than a usual daytime jump and in most jurisdictions requires both an advanced skydiving license (at least a B-License in the U.S.) and specialized training (night rating). A lighted altimeter (preferably accompanied with an audible altimeter) is a must. Skydivers performing night jumps often take flashlights up with them so that they can check their canopies once they deploy, so they can be assured that the canopy has opened correctly and is safe to fly and land. Visibility to other skydivers and other aircraft is also a consideration; FAA regulations require skydivers jumping at night to be wearing a light visible for three miles (5 km) in every direction, and to turn it on once they are under canopy.
Stuff jumps
A skydiver sits in a rubber raft steadied by three other jumpers
Skydivers are always looking for something new to do in the air. With the availability of a rear door aircraft and a large, unpopulated space to jump over 'stuff' jumps become possible. In these jumps the skydivers jump out with some object. Rubber raft jumps are popular, where the jumpers sit in a rubber raft. Cars, bikes, motorcycles, water tanks and inflatable companions have also been thrown out the back of an aircraft. At a certain height the jumpers break off from the object and deploy their parachutes, leaving it to crash into the ground at a very high speed.
Parachuting organizations
National parachuting associations exist in many countries (many affiliated with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)), to promote their sport.
In most cases, national representative bodies, as well as prudent local dropzone operators, require that participants carry certification, attesting to their training, their level of experience in the sport, and their proven competence. Anyone who cannot produce such bona-fides is treated as a student, requiring close supervision.
The primary organization in the United States is the United States Parachute Association (USPA)[1]. This organization hands out licenses and ratings for all American skydiving activities based on safety qualifications. The USPA governs safety in the sport of skydiving as this is the organizations sole responsibility and also publishes the Skydivers Information Manual (SIM) and many other resources. In Canada, the Canadian Sport Parachuting Association is the lead organization. In South Africa the sport is managed by the Parachute Association of South Africa.
Within the sport, associations promote safety, technical advances, training-and-certification, competition and other interests of their members. Outside their respective communities, they promote their sport to the public, and often intercede with government regulators.
Competitions are organized at regional, national and international levels in most these disciplines. Some of them offer amateur competition.
Many of the more photogenic/videogenic variants also enjoy sponsored events with prize money for the winners.
The majority of jumpers tend to be non-competitive, enjoying the opportunity to "get some air" with their friends on weekends and holidays.
The atmosphere of their gatherings is relaxed, sociable and welcoming to newcomers.
Party events, called "boogies" are arranged at local, national and international scale, each year, attracting both the enthusiastic young jumpers and many of their elders -- Parachutists Over Phorty (POPs), Skydivers Over Sixty (SOS) and even older groups who have yet to choose a catchy name for themselves.
Famous people associated with this sport include Valery Rozov, a gold medalist from the 1998 X Games, who has had more than 1,500 jumps. Georgia Thompson("Tiny") Broadwick is one of the first American skydivers, and she made the first freefall.
A tandem instructor and a student skydiving together
Commercial parachuting services vs. parachuting clubs
At larger centers, mostly in the "Sun Belt" region of the United States, training in the sport is often conducted by professional instructors and coaches at commercial establishments. The advantages to the newcomer are year-round availability, larger aircraft (which translates to greater comfort, higher jump altitudes, and more frequent jumping), and staff who are very current in both their sport and their instructional skills.
In the other latitudes, where winter (or monsoon) gets in the way of year-round operation, commercial skydiving centers are less prevalent and much of the parachuting activity is carried on by clubs. Most clubs cannot support larger aircraft. Training may be offered (by volunteer instructors who, nevertheless, are tested and certified in exactly the same way as their commercial counterparts) only in occasional classes as demand warrants. These clubs are usually weekend only operations as the volunteers have full-time jobs during the week. The entire experience tends to be informal and surrounded by a lot of socializing.
Some observers have suggested that commercial operations cater to a "fast-food" sensibility that leaves their novice graduates with very compartmentalized skill sets that may be lacking in important peripheral areas.
This is countered by the observation that students at busy commercial operations receive concentrated exposure and experience, and are thus able to improve rapidly without backtracking or developing bad habits.
The observation about participants who started learning in the club setting is that their progression can be slower due to smaller aircraft and fewer "good jumping days" (weather).
They may experience some backsliding as they need to re-learn some skills after weather-enforced lay-offs.
By contrast, the progression of a novice in a club usually involves learning all the ancillary skills out of necessity.
Everyone at a club learns all the skills and takes on all the roles.
For example, a large aircraft must be "spotted" (directed to fly over the optimum exit point) by an experienced jumper who is usually a parachute-center staffer.
Having experienced staff perform this duty ensures that everybody leaves the aircraft within range of the landing zone.
Nobody needs to hike or take a taxi back to the dropzone because their jumprun was spotted by a novice.
The downside is that the novices never learn the skill of reading the winds, the terrain and the aircraft movement, and of directing the aircraft where it should go. They remain dependent on the "pro."
At clubs, the aircraft are smaller, and everybody is a friend.
A bad spot is an excuse for some teasing, but it doesn't interrupt the smooth flow of a moneymaking operation.
Therefore, most people who join parachuting clubs are taught spotting skills very early in their careers. Similar contrasts apply to parachute packing, equipment maintenance and other skills of a well-rounded skydiver.
The answer to both sets of critics is that they are correct as far as they go. The perceived shortcomings of each learning environment are ameliorated by the fact that most skydivers eventually partake of both settings.
Club members often visit larger centers for holidays and events and for some concentrated exposure to the latest techniques.
People who learned at commercial centers often make friends with visiting club jumpers and then visit them at their home dropzones -- or start their own clubs.
Drop-zone traditions and culture
Drop Zones often have distinct cultures or traditions and their are many skydiving traditions that are practiced at drop zones all over the world. Most dropzones have a "beer line" a parimeter around the landing area often marked by flags. When an experienced skydiver crosses over the beer line when landing or if their parachute crosses over the beer line they are required by tradition to buy a case of beer for the other experienced skydivers at the drop zone. Other events often prompt beer buying. For instance when an A license is achieved the licensee is expected to buy a case of beer for other experienced skydivers for them to get to know each other over. Often the beer tally is announced over the loud speakers from the manifest. Often on the weekends experienced skydivers party and drink the owed beers in the hanger or around a bonfire sometimes musicians are brought in for more busy times of the year especially during Boogies. Boogies are huge jumping parties that often last a few days and evolve entertainment and special food at night and special skydiving events during the day. It is important to know that beer drinking activities are kept strictly separate from jumping activities and skydivers are mostly acutely conscious of safety.
Other traditions include wearing jumpsuits with particularly bright colors and bold designs along with eye catching parachutes. It is tradition that when one archives 100 jumps they are pied and thrown in the swooping pond by their experienced skydiver friends. Among skydivers It is common to make jokes about jumping out of a 'perfectly good airplane'. It is common for many instructors and skydiving enthusiasts to camp out at the drop zone promoting these traditions.
Equipment
Costs in the sport are not trivial. As new technological advances or performance enhancements are introduced, they tend to nudge equipment prices higher. Similarly, the average skydiver carries more equipment than in earlier years, with safety devices (such as an automatic reserve activation device) contributing a significant portion of the cost.
A full set of brand-new equipment can easily cost as much as a new motorcycle or half a small car.
The market is not large enough to permit the commoditization and price-erosion that is seen in other technologically intensive industries (like the computer industry).
In many countries, the sport supports a substantial used-equipment market.
For many beginners, especially those with limited funds, that is the preferred way to acquire "gear", and has two advantages:
★ First, they can try different types of parachutes (there are many) to learn which style they prefer, before paying the price for new equipment.
★ Second, they can acquire a complete system and all the peripheral items in a short time and at reduced cost.
Novices generally start with parachutes that are large and docile relative to the jumper's body-weight. As they improve in skill and confidence, it is customary to graduate to smaller, faster, more responsive parachutes.
An active jumper might change parachute canopies several times in the space of a few years, while retaining his or her first harness/container and peripheral equipment.
Older jumpers, especially those who jump only on weekends in summer, sometimes tend in the other direction, selecting slightly larger, more gentle parachutes that do not demand youthful intensity and reflexes on each jump.
They may be adhering to the maxim that: "There are old jumpers and there are bold jumpers, but there are no old, and bold jumpers."
Most parachuting equipment is ruggedly designed and is enjoyed by several owners before being retired. Purchasers are always advised to have any potential purchases examined by a qualified parachute rigger.
A rigger is trained to spot signs of damage or misuse.
Riggers also keep track of industry product and safety bulletins, and can therefore determine if a piece of equipment is up-to-date and serviceable.
Parachuting records
World's largest freefall formation: 400.
This record was set February 8, 2006 in Udon Thani, Thailand.
World's largest canopy formation: 85.
This record was set November 26, 2005 in Lake Wales Florida USA.
[2]
Don Kellner holds the record for the most parachute jumps, with a total of over 36,000 jumps.[3]
Cheryl Stearns (USA) holds the record for the most parachute descents by a woman, with a total of 15,560 in August 2003.
Capt. Joe W. Kittinger achieved the highest parachute jump in history on August 16, 1960 as part of a United States Air Force program testing high-altitude escape systems. Wearing a pressure suit, Capt. Kittinger ascended for an hour and a half in an open gondola attached to a balloon to an altitude of , where he then jumped. The fall lasted 4 minutes and 36 seconds, during which Capt. Kittinger reached speeds exceeding 700 miles per hour. The air in the upper atmosphere is less dense and thus leads to lower air-resistance and a much higher terminal velocity.
Adrian Nicholas holds the record for the longest freefall. A 4 minutes and 55 seconds wingsuit jump made on March 12 1999.
[4]
Jay Stokes holds the record for most parachute descents in a single day at 640.
[5]
Hildegarde Ferrea is the oldest person to have completed a skydive jump - at the age of 99 years old. She completed her tandem jump on February 17, 1996 at Dillingham Field in Oahu, Hawaii [The Honolulu Advertiser, Wednesday, March 6, 1996].
See also
★ drop zone
★ parachute
★ free-fall
★ tandem skydiving
External links
★ ''Danish Freefall Simulator Project - DFSP'' (First indoor vertical wind tunnel in Northern Europe)
★ SkydivingMagazine.com Monthly international magazine about the equipment, techniques, people, places and events of sport parachuting.
★ SkydivingMovies.com Large public skydiving video database, user-uploadable.
★ Skydive Radio The world's first and only podcast dedicated to skydiving.
★ FAI The Federation Aeronautique Internationale -- The international governing body for all airborne sports, including skydiving.
★ USPA The United States Parachute Association -- The governing body for sport skydiving in the U.S.
★ CSPA The Canadian Sport Parachuting Association -- The governing body for sport skydiving in Canada.
★ BPA The British Parachute Association -- The governing body for sport skydiving in the United Kingdom.
★ Article on about.com History, Design, and Information about parachutes.
★ FFU Skydiving Articles Articles about various disciplines in the sport.
★ Red Cross Appeal Week skydiving stunt The Britchicks will be raising money for the British Red Cross by attempting to beat the British women's formation record.
★ Australian Parachute Federation The Australian Parachute Federation - The governing body for sport skydiving in Australia
★ Airtite Airtite - The Australian Representative 4-Way Skydiving Team
★ Information about military parachuting
Notes
★ Malone, Jo (June, 2000). Birth of Freefly. ''Skydive the Mag''.
1. http://www.uspa.org/publications/SIM/2007SIM/section2.htm#21g
2. Fatality statistics
3. dropzone.com statistics
4. How skydiving works
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