'Shiva' (
IAST: '', also spelled 'Siva'; Hindi, 'Shiv') is one of the principal
deities of
Hinduism. Within
Shaivism he is viewed as the supreme deity, whereas in other branches of Hinduism such as the
Smarta tradition he is worshipped as one of several manifestations of the divine. Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called ''Shaivites'' or ''Shaivas'' (Sanskrit )
[1]. His role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets '' ("great god"; '' = great + ''deva'' = god),
[2][3] '' ("great lord"; '' = great + '' = lord),
[4][5] and ''
'' ("Supreme Lord").
[6] Shaivism, along with traditions that focus on
Vishnu, and traditions that focus on the
goddess () are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism
[7].
Shiva is one of the five primary forms of the Divine in
Smartism, a denomination of
Hinduism that puts particular emphasis on five deities, the other four being
Vishnu,
Devi,
Ganesha, and
Surya.
[7] Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the
Trimurti. In the Trimurti system,
Brahma is the creator,
Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.
[9]
Etymology
The Sanskrit word '' (
Devanagari शिव) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.
[10][11] As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for
Rudra.
[11] In simple English transliteration it is written either as ''Shiva'' or ''Siva''. In English it is pronounced as . The adjective '' meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.
[13] In the
Rig Veda Indra uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
The Sanskrit word '' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.
[14] It is used as as adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as
Shaivism.
[15]
Historical development
:''For the early history see
Rudra''
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India.
[16][17]Modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional cults being amalgamated into a single figure.
[18] How the ''persona'' of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented.
[19] Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:
Like , is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: . Like , the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.[20]
An example of assimilation took place in
Maharashtra, where a regional deity named
Khandoba is a patron deity of
farming and
herding castes.
[21] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in
Jejuri.
[22] Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya
[23] and also as a form of Shiva himself
[24] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a
lingam.
[21][26] Shakti M. Gupta clarifies the possible confusion between these two identifications by explaining that one of Karttikeya's functions is as the patron deity of thieves, and it is in this capacity that the tribe called Ramoshis, who are thieves by profession, worship Khandoba.
[27] Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya.
[21] The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.
[29]
The Pashupati seal
An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed ''pashupati''
A seal discovered during excavation of the
Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the
Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.
[30] This "
Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit '')
[31] seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.
[32] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.
[30][34] Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:
Rudra
Main articles: Rudra
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god
Rudra[35] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring
storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the
Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on
linguistic and
philological evidence.
[36] A god named
Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.
[37]
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
To what extent 's origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.[38]
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: '')
[39] and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.
[40] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.
[41] The word is derived from the Sanskrit root ''-'' which means "to injure" or "to kill"
[42] and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".
[41] The names ("Bowman")
[44] and ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")
[44][46] also refer to archery.
Attributes of Shiva
Shiva Bearing the Descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740
★ 'Third Eye:' Shiva is often depicted with a
third eye with which he burned Desire () to ashes.
[47] There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name ''Tryambakam'' (''Sanskrit'': तà¥à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤•à¤®à¥), which occurs in many scriptural sources.
[48] In classical Sanskrit the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'' Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes".
[49] However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word '' or '' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by
Max Müller and
Arthur Macdonell.
[50][51] Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the .
[52] Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess .
[53]
★ 'Blue Throat:' The epithet '' (''Sanskrit'' नीलकणà¥à¤ ; ''nÄ«la'' = blue, '' = throat)
[41][55] refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.
[56][57] (see:
HalÄhala)
★ 'Crescent Moon:' Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon.
[58] The epithet '' (''Sanskrit'': चनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¥‡à¤–र "Having the moon as his crest" - ''chandra'' = Moon, '' = crest, crown)
[59][60][61] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.
[62] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with
Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.
[63]
★ 'Matted Hair:' Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets '', "The One with matted hair"
[64] and ''Kapardin'', "Endowed with matted hair"
[65] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".
[66] A ''kaparda'' is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.
[67]
★ 'Sacred Ganga:' The
Ganga rivers flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet ''
'' ("Bearer of the
river ") refers to this feature.
[68][69] The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.
[70]
★ 'Ashes:' Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma).
[71] Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.
[72] These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.
[73] One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (''Sanskrit'': , also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.
[74]
★ '
Tiger skin:' He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.
[71]
★ 'Serpents:' Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.
[76]
★ 'Trident:' (Sanskrit:
Trishula) Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.
[71]
★ 'Drum:' A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a "damaru" (Sanskrit: '').
[78][79] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation
[80] known as
Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (
mudra) called '' (Sanskrit for "-hand") is used to hold the drum.
[81] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the sect.
[82]
★ '
', also known as ''Nandin'', is the name of the
bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ''
'').
[83][84] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name '' or
Pashupati (''Sanskrit'' पशà¥à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"
[41] and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.
[86]
★ '
Varanasi' (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India.
[87]
★ '
Mount ' in the
Himalayas is his traditional abode.
[71] In Hindu mythology, Mount is conceived as resembling a ''linga'', representing the center of the universe.
[89]
Forms and depictions
According to Gavin Flood, "Åšiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.
[90] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
Destroyer versus benefactor
In the
Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terriffic (Sanskrit: '') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: '') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Åšiva cult of later ages are to be found here."
[91] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.
[92] The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
The name ''
Rudra'' (''Sanskrit'' रà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'' which means "to cry, howl."
[93] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means wild, of ''rudra'' nature, and translates the name ''Rudra'' as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".
[94] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".
[95] ''Hara'' (''Sanskrit'' हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."
[95] Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".
[57] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as '' (''Sanskrit'': काल), "Time", and as '' (''Sanskrit'': महाकाल), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things.
[98][99][100] Bhairava (Sanskrit: à¤à¥ˆà¤°à¤µ), "Terrible" or "Frightful"
[101] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.
[102]
In contrast, the name (''Sanskrit'' शङà¥à¤•à¤°), "Beneficent"
[41] or "Conferring Happiness"
[104] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher
(c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya.
[105][106] The name '' (''Sanskrit'': शमà¥à¤à¥), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.
[107][108]
Ascetic versus householder
An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva,
Parvati,
Ganesha and
Skanda (Kartikeya)
He is depicted as both an ascetic
yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.
[109] When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating.
[110] His epithet ''MahÄyogin'' (The Great
Yogi: = great, Yogin = one who practices
Yoga) refers to his association with yoga.
[111] While
Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the
Epic period that concepts of
tapas,
yoga, and
asceticism, became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.
[112]
As a family man and householder he has a wife,
Parvati (also known as ), and two sons,
Ganesha and
Skanda. His epithet '' ("The husband of ") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, and , also appear in the sahasranama.
[113] in epic literature is known by many names, including
.
[114][115] She is identifed with
Devi, the Divine Mother, and with
Shakti (divine energy).
Shiva and Parvati are the parents of
Karthikeya and
Ganesha. Karttikeya is popular in South India by the names Subrahmanya and
Murugan, and in North India he is more popular by the name Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.
[116]
Nataraja
Main articles: Nataraja
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: '', "Lord of Dance") is popular.
[117][118] The names ''Nartaka'' ("Dancer") and ''Nityanarta'' ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.
[119] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the
Puranic period.
[120] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: '') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Southern India in particular.
[121]
Main articles: Dakshinamurthy
(''Sanskrit'': दकà¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£à¤¾à¤®à¥‚रà¥à¤¤à¤¿)
[122] literally describes a form ('') of Shiva facing south (''). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of
yoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.
[123] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly south Indian in character.
[124] Elements of this ''motif'' can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.
[125]
Ardhanarishvara
Main articles: Ardhanari
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.
[126] According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, ('') is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".
[127]
Main articles: Tripura (mythology)
Shiva is often depicted in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.
[128] Shiva's name (''Sanskrit'': तà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤•), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.
[129]
Lingam
Main articles: Lingam
''Also see:'' ''
Jyotirlinga''
Apart from antropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a ''
lingam'' is also important.
[35][131][132] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
The five mantras
Five is a sacred number for Shiva.
[133] One of his most important mantras has five syllables ('').
[134]
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the '':
[135] As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:
[136]
★
★
★
Aghora
★
★
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.
[137][138] Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.
[139] But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, Åšiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[140]
According to the ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'':
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)[141]
Relationships in the pantheon
Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including
Agni,
Indra,
,
, and others.
[142]
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.
[143][144] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.
[145] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''
Nirukta'', an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".
[146] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire myth of plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[147]
In the
''Śatarudrīa'', some epithets of Rudra such as ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities.
[148] Agni is said to be a bull
[149] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle,
Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.
[150][151] In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.
[152]
Indra
In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.
[153]
In the Rig Veda the term '' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,
[154] 6.45.17,
[155][156] and 8.93.3.
[157]
Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.
[158][159]
Vishnu
During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE) both were gaining ascendance.
[160] By the Puranic period both deities had major cults that competed with one another for devotees.
[161] Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.
Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.
[162] The ''Vishnu Purana'' (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it.
[163] Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the ''Bhagavata Purana''.
[164] In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.
[165] In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.
[166] The
''Śatarudrīya'', a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".
[167] Rivalry between the two cults is apparent in the story of
(also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as
Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed
Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.
[168][169]
Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms.
Harihara is a the name of a combined deity form of both
Vishnu (
Hari) and Shiva (
Hara).
[170] This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the
Mahabharata.
[171] An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet , "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, = Lord). This name refers to story in which
was given a ''
linga'' as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present
Deoghar in
Bihar to purify himself and asked
Vishnu in the guise of a
Brahmin to hold the ''linga'' for him, but after some time Vishnu put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the ''linga'', and it is said to remain there ever since. A number of ''lingas'' in southern India are associated with this story, including the famous MahÄbaleÅ›vara linga at
Gokarna.
[172]
Avatars
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as
Avatars.
Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist
Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.
[173] In the ''Hanuman Chalisa''
Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.
[174]
Names of Shiva
In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that ''uniquely'' describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.
Sahasranamas
There are at least eight different versions of the ''
Shiva Sahasranama'', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.
[41] The version appearing in Book 13 () of the
Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradion.
[176]
The eight versions analyzed by Ram Karan Sharma are:
[41]
:1. ''Mahabharata'' 13.17.30-150 ( Version)
:2. ''Linga Purana'' (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata version.
:3. ''Linga Purana'' (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources
:4. ''Shivapurana'' 4.35.1-131.
:5. ''Mahabharata'' ( version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to . It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180.
:6. ''Vayu Purana'' (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata version.
:7. ''Brahmanda Purana'' (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version.
:8. '' Upapurana'' (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin.
Chamakam
The
Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the ''Åšatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.
[178][179]
See also
★
Shaivism
★
History of Shaivism
★
Shiva Puja
★
Lingayat
★
Kapalika
★
Ramnathi
Notes
1. Tattwananda, p. 45.
2. Kramrisch, p. 476.
3. For appearance of the name महादेव in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see:
4. Kramrisch, p. 477.
5. For appearance of the name महेशà¥à¤µà¤° in the Shiva Sahasranama see:.
6. For as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
7. Flood (1996), p. 17.
8. Flood (1996), p. 17.
9. Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
10. Apte, p. 919.
11. Macdonell, p. 314.
12. Macdonell, p. 314.
13. For use of the term '' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.
14. Apte, p. 927
15. For the definition "Åšaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of ('') and which focus on the deity ... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.
16. Flood (1996), p. 17
17. Keay, p.xxvii.
18. Keay, p. xxvii.
19. For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
20. Michaels, p. 215.
21. Courtright, p. 205.
22. For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
23. For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, ''Preface'', and p. 40.
24. 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
25. Courtright, p. 205.
26. For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
27. For association of Kartikkeya as patron of thieves and worship by the Ramoshis as Khandoba, see: Gupta, p. 40.
28. Courtright, p. 205.
29. Mate, p. 176.
30. Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
31. For translation of '' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
32. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.
33. Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
34. Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
35. Michaels, p. 216.
36. For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.
37. Doniger, pp. 221-223.
38. Michaels, p. 217.
39. For as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
40. For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.
41.
42. For root ''-'' see: Apte, p. 910.
43.
44. Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
45. Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
46. For translation of as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: .
47. For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.
48. For a review of theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.
49. For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
50. For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
51. For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-38.
52. For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
53. For the variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
54.
55. See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
56. For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
57. Kramrisch, p. 473.
58. For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
59. For '' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
60. For as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
61. For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
62. For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
63. For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.
64. Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
65. For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: .
66. Kramrisch, p. 475.
67. For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
68. For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
69. For description of the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.
70. For Shiva supporting upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.
71. Flood (1996), p. 151.
72. Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
73. Flood (1996), p. 161.
74. Chidbhavananda, p. 23.
75. Flood (1996), p. 151.
76. Flood (1996), p. 151
77. Flood (1996), p. 151.
78. Michaels, p. 218.
79. For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
80. Jansen, p. 44.
81. Jansen, p. 25.
82. For use by , see: Apte, p. 461.
83. For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.
84. For spelling of alternate proper names and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.
85.
86. Kramrisch, p. 479.
87. Keay, p. 33.
88. Flood (1996), p. 151.
89. For identification of Mount as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
90. For quotation "Åšiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
91. For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later cult forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
92. For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: .
93. For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
94. Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
95. .
96. .
97. Kramrisch, p. 473.
98. For translation of as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476.
99. For the name translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474.
100. The name appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time". See: .
101. For à¤à¥ˆà¤°à¤µ as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.
102. For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.
103.
104. Kramrisch, p. 481.
105. For adoption of the name by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
106. For dating Shankaracarya as 788-820 CE see: Flood (1996), p. 92.
107. For translation of as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
108. For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
109. For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
110. For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
111. For name MahÄyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
112. For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
113. For , and as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: .
114. For as the oldest name, and variants including , see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
115. For identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
116. For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.
117. For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.
118. For interpretation of the '' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
119. For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नरà¥à¤¤à¤•) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नितà¥à¤¯à¤¨à¤°à¥à¤¤) as names of Shiva, see: .
120. For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
121. For popularity of the '' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
122. For iconographic description of the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
123. For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
124. For characterization of as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
125. For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as , see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
126. Goldberg, p. 1.
127. Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
128. For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.
129. For the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.
130. Michaels, p. 216.
131. Flood (1996), p. 29.
132. Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
133. For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
134. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
135. For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
136. For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
137. For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
138. For the epithets '' and '', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of , see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.
139. For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.
140. Kramrisch, p. 184.
141. Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.
142. For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, PrajÄpati, VÄyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
143. For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
144. For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
145. For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as ." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
146. For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.
147. Kramrisch, p. 18.
148. For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets and see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
149. [1]
150. For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
151. RV 8.49; 10.155.
152. For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
153. For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
154. For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो यà¥à¤µà¥‡à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¥‹ जोहूतà¥à¤°à¤ƒ सखा शिवो नरामसà¥à¤¤à¥ पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
155. For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स तà¥à¤µà¤‚ न इनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤° मृलय ॥ and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
156. For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: .
157. For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤ƒ सिवः सखाशà¥à¤šà¤¾à¤µà¤¦à¥ गोमदà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤®à¤¤à¥ । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
158. For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
159. RV 7.19.
160. For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 BCE see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.
161. For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.
162. For Visnu becoming Shiva in Vaishnava myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125.
163. For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.
164. For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: ''Bhagavata Purana'' 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.
165. For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128.
166. For the ''lingodbhava'' myth, and Vishnu and BrahmÄ as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.
167. For translation of the epithet शिपिविषà¥à¤Ÿ (IAST: '') as "salutation to him of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth '', and comment that this epithet "links with " see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.
168. For as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
169. For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.
170. Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.
171. For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969), p. 221.
172. For the story of and the ''linga'' see: Chakravarti, p. 168.
173. Padma Purana 6.236.7-11
174. Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
175.
176. This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.
177.
178. For an overview of the ''Åšatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.
179. For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).
References
A Shiva Linga
★
★ Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. ''Ṛgveda SaṃhitÄ: Sanskrit Text, English Translation''. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9.
★
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Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering., , Swami, Chidbhavananda, Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam, 1997, (Third editon). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the AnuÅ›Äsana Parva of the MahÄbharata.
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An Introduction to Hinduism, , Gavin, Flood, Cambridge University Press, 1996,
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The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, , Gavin (Editor), Flood, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2003,
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The Lord Who is Half Woman: ArdhanÄrÄ«Å›vara in Indian and Feminist Perspective, , Ellen, Goldberg, State University of New York Press, 2002,
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Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva, , Shakti M., Gupta, Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1988,
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Epic Mythology, , E. Washburn, Hopkins, Biblo and Tannen, 1969, Originally published in 1915.
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The Book of Hindu Imagery, , Eva Rudy, Jansen, Binkey Kok Publications BV, 1993,
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India: A History, , John, Keay, Grove Press, 2000,
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The Presence of Åšiva, , Stella, Kramrisch, Princeton University Press, 1981,
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A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, , Arthur Anthony, Macdonell, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1996,
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Temples and Legends of Maharashtra, , M. S., Mate, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1988,
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Hinduism: Past and Present, , Axel, Michaels, Princeton University Press, 2004,
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★ This work compares eight versions of the ÅšivasahasranÄmÄstotra with comparative analysis and ÅšivasahasranÄmÄkoá¹£a (A Dictionary of Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.
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Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva's Iconography, , C., Sivaramamurti, Abhinav Publications, 1976,
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The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography, , Margaret, Stutley, , 1985, First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2.
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Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship, , Swami, Tattwananda, Firma KLM Private Ltd., 1984, First revised edition.
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Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, , Heinrich, Zimmer, Princeton University Press, 1946, First Princeton-Bollingen printing, 1972.
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Hanuman Chalisa, , , , Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1985,
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