SHIKSHA

:''See Shiksha (NGO) for the Indian NGO. For the Yiddish slang word, see Shiksa.''
'Shiksha' (IAST ) is one of the six Vedangas, treating the traditional Hindu science of phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit.
Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. The oldest phonetics textbooks are the 'Pratishakyas' ('', a vrddhi abstract from Sanskrit '' "side branch", "offshoot"), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi, specific to individual schools or Shakhas.

Contents

Pratishakhyas

Syllabicity

Morae

Nasality

Pitch accent

Traditional articulatory phonetics

Places of Articulation

Efforts of Articulation

Articulation of Consonants

See also

Pratishakhyas

Five Pratishakhyas are preserved:

★ Rigveda-Pratishakya (Shakala shakha), attributed to Shaunaka

★ Shukla-Yajurveda-Pratishakhya

★ Taittiriya (Black Yajurveda) Pratishakhya, ed. Whitney 1871 [1]

★ Atharvaveda-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)

★ Shaunakiya Chaturaadhyaayika (Shaunakiya shakha)
In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. Some of these surviving texts are 1. English translation of Paniniya Siksa.pdf

★ Amoghanandini Shiksha

★ Apisali Shiksha (pre-Paninean, in sutra form)

★ Aranya Shiksha

★ Atreya Shiksha

★ Avasananirnyaya Shiksha

★ Bharadvaja Shiksha

★ Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form)

★ Charayaniya Shiksha

★ Galadrka Shiksha

★ Kalanirnya Shiksha

★ Katyayani Shiksha

★ Kauhaliya Shiksha

★ Kaundinya Shiksha

★ Keshavi Shiksha

★ Kramakarika Shiksha

★ Kramasandhaana Shiksha

★ Laghumoghanandini Shiksha

★ Lakshmikanta Shiksha

★ Lomashi Shiksha

★ Madhyandina Shiksha

★ Mandavya Shiksha

★ Mallasharmakrta Shiksha

★ Manasvaara Shiksha

★ Manduki Shiksha

★ Naradiya Shiksha

★ Paniniya Shiksha (versified)

★ Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form)

★ Paniniya Shiksha (with accents)

★ Parashari Shiksha

★ Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha

★ Pari Shiksha

★ Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha

★ Sarvasammata Shiksha

★ Shaishiriya Shiksha

★ Shamaana Shiksha

★ Shambhu Shiksha

★ Shodashashloki Shiksha

★ Shikshasamgraha

★ Siddhanta Shiksha

★ Svaraankusha Shiksha

★ Svarashtaka Shiksha

★ Svaravyanjana Shiksha

★ Vasishtha Shiksha

★ Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha

★ Vyaali Shiksha

★ Vyasa Shiksha

★ Yajnavalkya Shiksha
Although many of these Shiksha texts an attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts.

Syllabicity

Traditionally syllables (not alphabets) in Sanskrit are called ''Aksharam'', meaning "imperishable entity", as it were "atoms" of speech. These aksharas are basically classified mainly into two types,^[1]

★ 'Svaram' (pratyahara ''aC'') : Vowel

★ 'Vyanjanam' (pratyahara ''haL'') : Consonant
Svara aksharas are also known as 'Prāna akshara' i.e. they are main sounds in speech without which speech is not possible. So, they are considered as life letters. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil vowels calling them as ''Uyir ezhutthu''. Panini referred the svara by ''Ach Pratyahāra''. So aftermath him, they are referred as ''Ach Aksharam''.
''Vyanjana'' means embellishment. i.e., Consonants are treated as embellishment for the vowels to make a language sonorant. They are also known as 'Prāni akshara' i.e., they are like a body in which life (Svara) will be present. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil Consonants calling them as ''Mey ezhutthu''. Panini referred the vyanjana by ''Hal Pratyahāra''. So after him, they are referred as ''Hal Aksharam''.
Again Vyanjana aksharas are divided into three types,

★ 'Vyanjana'

★
★ 'Sparśa' : Stop

★
★ 'Antastha' : Approximant

★
★ 'Ūshman': Sibilant
Sparśa aksharas include syllables from ''Ka'' to ''Ma'' they are 25 in number. Antastha aksharas include syllables ''ya'', ''ra'', ''la'' and ''va''. Ūshman aksharas include ''śa'', ''sha'', ''sa'' and ''ha''.
It was told that a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3x2x3) in Sanskrit language based on timing, manner, and accent of pronunciation.

Morae

Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the time of pronunciation (morae). The unit of time is ''mātra'' (approx. 0.4 second). They are,

★ 'Hrasvam' : Short vowel, Eka Mātra

★ 'Dīrgam' : Long vowel, Dvi Mātra

★ 'Plutam' : Prolonged vowel, Tri Mātra (pluti)
So each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to timespan of articulation.

Nasality

Each vowel can be classified into two types based on the manner of pronunciation. They are
: 'Mukha' : Oral
: 'Nāsika' : Nasal (all vowels are considered phonemically oral)

Pitch accent

Main articles: Vedic accent

Each vowel can be classified into three types based on accent of articulation. This was lost in Classical Sanskrit, but used in chanting Vedic & Upanishadic hymns and mantras.
: 'Udātta' : high pitch
: 'Anudātta' : low pitch
: 'Svarita' : falling pitch
so each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the accent of pronunciation.

Traditional articulatory phonetics

According to the Indian linguistic tradition, articulation is analysed by different parameters and features.^[1]

Places of Articulation

Generally, in articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is the point of contact, where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an active (moving) articulator (typically some part of the tongue) and a passive (stationary) articulator (typically some part of the roof of the mouth).
According to Indian linguistic tradition, the places of articulation (passive) are classified as five. They are:-
: 'Kanthyam' : Velar
: 'Tālavyam' : Palatal
: 'Mūrdhanyam' : Retroflex
: 'Dantyam ': Dental
: 'Ōshtyam ': Labial
Apart from that, other places are combinations of the above five places. They are:-
: 'Dantōsthyam' : Labio-dental (Eg: v)
: 'Kantatālavyam' : Eg: Diphthong e
: 'Kantōsthyam' : labial-velar (Eg: Diphthong o)
The places of articulation (active) are classified as three, they are
: 'Jihvā Mūlam' : tongue root, for velar
: 'Jihvā Madhyam' : tongue body, for palatal
: 'Jihvāgram' : tip of tongue, for cerebral and dental
: 'Adhōstam' : lower lip, for labial

Efforts of Articulation

Effort of articulation ('Ucchārana Prayatna') is of two types for consonants,
: 'Bāhya Prayatna' : External effort
:: 'Spristam' : Plosive
:: 'Īshat Spristam' : Approximate
:: 'Īshat Samvritam' : Fricative
: 'Abhyantara Prayatna' : Internal effort
:: 'Alpaprānam' : Unaspirated
:: 'Mahāprānam' : Aspirated
:: 'Śvāsam' : Unvoiced
:: 'Nādam' : Voiced

Articulation of Consonants

Articulation of consonants will be a logical combination of components in the two prayatnas. The below table gives a view upon articulation of consonants.

Samskrita Vyanjana Ucchārana Pattika^[3]

Prayatna Niyamāvalī	Kanthya (jihvā Mūlam)	Tālavya (jihvā Madhyam)	Mūrdhanya (jihvāgram)	Dantya (jihvāgram)	Dantōshtya	Ōshtya (adhōstam)
''Sparśam'', Śvāsam, Alpaprānam	ka	ca	Ta	ta	—	pa
''Sparśam'', Śvāsam,Mahāprānam	kha	cha	Tha	tha	—	pha
''Sparśam'', Nādam, Alpaprānam	ga	ja	Da	da	—	ba
''Sparśam'', Nādam, Mahāprānam	gha	jha	Dha	dha	—	bha
''Sparśam'', Nādam, Alpaprānam, Anunāsikam, Dravam, Avyāhatam	nga	nja	Na	na	—	ma
''Antastham'', Nādam, Alpaprānam, Dravam, Avyāhatam	—	ya	ra (Lunthitam)	la (Pārśvikam)	va	—
''Ūshman'', Śvāsam,Mahāprānam, Avyāhatam	Visarga	śa	sha	sa	—	—
''Ūshman'', Nādam,Mahāprānam, Avyāhatam	ha	—	—	—	—	—

See also

★ Shiva Sutra