SERBIAN LANGUAGE

'Serbian' (српски језик; ''srpski jezik'') is one of the standard versions of the Shtokavian dialect, used primarily in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia, and by Serbs in the Serbian diaspora. The former standard is known as Serbo-Croatian, now split into Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian standards.
Two alphabets are used to write the Serbian language: a variation on the Cyrillic alphabet, devised by Vuk Karadžić, and a variation on the Latin alphabet, devised by Ljudevit Gaj. The characters of the two alphabets map to each other one-to-one.
Serbian orthography is very consistent: approximation of the principle "one letter per sound". This principle is represented by Adelung's saying, "Write as you speak and read as it is written", the principle used by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić when reforming the Cyrillic orthography of Serbian in the 19th century.
Standard Serbian is based on the Štokavian dialect. The ''Ekavian'' variant is spoken mostly in Serbia and ''Ijekavian'' in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, south-western Serbia, and Croatia. The base for is the Ijekavian dialect is East-Herzegovinian, and of the Ekavian, the Šumadija-Vojvodina dialect. Features of other Shtokavian dialects, as well of the Torlakian dialect, which is spoken in southern Serbia, are not accepted as standard.

Writing systems

'Serbian Cyrillic and Serbian Latin', from ''Comparative orthography of European languages''. Source: Vuk Stefanović Karadžić "Srpske narodne pjesme" (Serbian folk poems), Vienna, 1841

Serbian language can be written in two different alphabets: Serbian Cyrillic script (ћирилица) and the Serbian Latin (''latinica'').

Cyrillic	Latin	Cyrillic	Latin
А	A	Н	N
Б	B	Њ	Nj
В	V	О	O
Г	G	П	P
Д	D	Р	R
Ђ	Đ	С	S
Е	E	Т	T
Ж	Ž	Ћ	Ć
З	Z	У	U
И	I	Ф	F
Ј	J	Х	H
К	K	Ц	C
Л	L	Ч	Č
Љ	Lj	Џ	Dž
М	M	Ш	Š

The sort order of the two alphabets is different.

★ Cyrillic order (called ''Azbuka'' (''азбука'')): А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ Ш

★ Latin order (called ''abeceda''): A B C Č Ć D Dž Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š T U V Z Ž

Use of scripts

Cyrillic alphabet was in exclusive use in Serbia before the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed (1918), but Latin was used by Serbs in the coastal area of modern Montenegro as well as in Croatia (Dubrovnik-Neretva County), and Bosnia and Herzegovina (mainly Herzegovina which adjoins the latter two areas). Some famous literary historians and critics from Belgrade, as Jovan Skerlić, proposed to abolish literary chaos and end arguments by accepting Latin as the only alphabet. Especially during the socialist era, Latin has made a major breakthrough even in Serbia proper. Since the constitutional reforms in the early 1970s, most documents were published in "Serbo-Croatian" Cyrillic and "Croato-Serbian" (sometimes Serbo-Croatian) Latin^[1]. Enciklopedija Jugoslavije was published in Zagreb in "Croatian or Serbian" (the way Croats referred to Serbo-Croatian language) Latin, "Serbo-Croat" (the way Serbs, Montenigriens, Muslims and all other nations in Yugoslavia referred to Serbo-Croatian langage) Cyrillic, Slovenian, Macedonian, Albanian and Hungarian. The only ''Yugoslav'' (not traditionally Serbian, Croatian nor Bosnian) newspaper ''Borba'' was printed in both alphabets: one page in Cyrillic, the following page in Latinic and so on all through the journal, with the script of the front page alternating between the two every day. Whilst Serbo-Croat was widely accepted (before the Yugoslav Wars), the Cyrillic alphabet was used predominantly in central Serbia and in Montenegro (until the late 1990s). The Latin alphabet was preferred in Croatia and the only one used by the Croats. In Belgrade, the northern Serbian province of Vojvodina and in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the larger more vibrant towns of Serbia, either alphabet would be used as and how the writer would choose.
The exact percentage of use of alphabets is difficult to assess today. Of the major newspapers, ''Politika'', ''Večernje Novosti'', ''Glas Javnosti'', and ''Dnevnik'' are printed in Cyrillic, while ''Blic'', ''Kurir'', ''Danas'' and ''Press'' use Latin. Of the major TV outlets, only the public service Radio Television of Serbia uses primarily Cyrillic (as well as former BK TV), while Pink, B92 and most others use Latin. An informal poll on the Internet forum Serbian Cafe showed no apparent preference.^[2] According to the data collected by ''Association for Protection of Cyrillic'', over 80% of public inscriptions in Novi Sad is in Latin, and over 60% in Belgrade; 5/6 of (randomly sampled) magazines is in Latin, as well as vast majority of university textbooks (however, the proportion is the opposite for high-school ones).^[3]
Many e-mail and even web documents written in Serbian use basic ASCII, where Serbian Latin letters that use diacritics (Ž Ć Č Š) are either replaced with the base, undiacritised forms (Z C C S) or with two letter combinations that are pronounced similarly (Zh, Tj, Ch, Sh), letter Đ is replaced with Dj, and Dž with Dz. The original words are then recognized from the context. This is not an official alphabet, and is considered bad practice, but there are some documents in Serbian that use this simplified alphabet. This is common practice in other languages that use letters with diacritics.

Equivalence of scripts

The Cyrillic letters /Љ/, /Њ/ and /Џ/ are represented by digraphs in the Latin alphabet. In digraphs, letters are always written together - even in top-down text - and are also sorted as one letter (e.g. '''ljubav''', ''love'', comes after '''lopta''', ''ball''). The present Cyrillic script, having been devised for the language itself, is precise because there is no ambiguity involved in reading Lj, Nj and Dž: for example, both Cyrillic /и'нј'екција/ (mathematical injection or medical injection) and /'њ'егов/ (''his'') are written with "'nj'" in Latin form. Thus, automatic transliteration of Cyrillic text to Latin is straightforward, but automatic transliteration of Latin text to Cyrillic requires additional heuristic rules.

Phonology

Vowels

The Serbian vowel system is simple, with only five vowels. All vowels are monophthongs. The oral vowels are as follows:^[4]

'Latin script'	'Cyrillic script'	'Description'	'English approximation'
'a'	'а'	open central unrounded	''f'a'ther''
'i'	'и'	close front unrounded	''s'ee'k''
'e'	'е'	(open-)mid front unrounded	''t'e'n''
'o'	'о'	(open-)mid back rounded	''c'au'ght'' (British)
'u'	'у'	closed back rounded	''b'oo'm''

Consonants

The consonant system is more complicated, and its characteristic features are series of affricate and palatal consonants. As in English, voicedness is phonemic, but aspiration is not. The consonant phoneme table for Serbian is as follows (corresponding Latin letters are below the IPA symbols)

Consonant Phonemes of Serbian
	Bilabial		Labio- Dental		Dental		Alveolar	Post- Alveolar		Palatal		Velar
Plosive	P	B			T	D						K	G
Nasal	M						N			Nj
Fricative			F		S	Z		Š	Ž			H
Affricate					C			Č	Dž	Ć	Đ
Approximant				V						J
Trill					R
Laterals					L					Lj

V is often also described as a (lowered) fricative (),^[5] which is phonetically closer. However, on phonological level, it doesn't interact with unvoiced consonants as a fricative normally would, but as an approximant.
' can be syllabic, playing the role of a vowel in certain words (it can even have a long accent). For example, the tongue-twister ''na vrh brda vrba mrda'' involves four words with syllabic 'r'. A similar feature exists in Czech, Slovak, Macedonian and many other languages. In some vernaculars can be syllabic as well. However, in the standard language, it appears only in loanwords as in the name for the Czech river "Vltava" for instance, or ''debakl'' (дебакл), ''monokl'' (монокл) and ''bicikl'' (бицикл).
In Serbian, the phonemes /č, ć, đ, dž/ (in contrast to Croatian and Bosnian vernaculars) have in most vernaculars an independent phonetic realization.^[6]

Phonetic interactions

While the basic sound system is fairly simple, Serbian phonology is very complicated: there are numerous interactions (sandhi rules) between voices at morpheme boundaries which cause sound changes, with numerous exceptions. The changes include:

★ Two types of Iotation

★
★ So called ''older'', includes all Slavic languages

★
★ So called ''newer'': ''d'', ''t'', ''l'', ''n'' + ''j'' > ''đ'', ''ć'', ''lj'', ''nj''.

★ Three types of palatalization, includes all Slavic languages:

★
★ First, involving shift of velar consonants ''k'', ''g'' and ''h'' into postalveolar ''č'', ''ž'' and ''š'' in front of front vowels ''e'' and ''i'',

★
★ Second (aka sibilarization), involving shift of ''k'', ''g'' and ''h'' into alveolar ''c'', ''z'' and ''s'' in front of ''e'' and ''i''

★
★ Third (aka second sibilarization), involving shift of ''k'', ''g'', ''h'' into ''c'', ''z'', ''s'' ''after'' ''e'', ''i'' and ''a''.

★ Voicing and Devoicing assimilation

★ Assimilation by place of articulation

★ Elision in complex consonant clusters

★ L→O shift, where final and pre-consonant L morphed into O (historic)

★ "Labile A", referring to sound "a" occurring only in nominative and genitive plural of nouns with several suffixes (most commonly -''ak'' and -''ac''): ''toč'a'k'' (''wheel'') (N) → ''točka'' (G) → ''točku'' (D) etc.

Voicing/devoicing

In consonant clusters all consonants are either voiced or voiceless. All the consonants are voiced (if the last consonant is normally voiced) or voiceless (if the last consonant is normally voiceless). This rule does not apply to approximants — a consonant cluster may contain voiced approximants and voiceless consonants; as well as to foreign words (''Washington'' would be transcribed as ''VašinGton''/''ВашинГтон''), personal names and when consonants are not inside of one syllable.

Prosody

Accents

Serbian has an extended system of accentuation. From the phonological point of view it has four accents which are divided into two groups according to their quality:

★ there are two accents with falling intonation ("old accents")- the short one and the long one

★ there are two accents with rise in intonation ("new accents")- the short one and the long one
However, their realization varies according to vernacular. That is why Daničić, Budmani, Matešić and other scientists have given different descriptions of the four Serbian accents. The old accents are rather close to Italian and English accent types, and the new ones to German (this can be easily seen through loanwords).
Here is one possibility of phonetic realization of 4 Serbian accents:
#Short falling (''kratkosilazni''; symbol `` – double grave) as in ''Mïlica'' (PNfem). Pronunciation: ('i' is stressed and short, as in English ''thick'',''cut'').
#Long falling (''dugosilazni''; symbol ^) as in pîvo (meaning beer). Pronunciation: ('i' is stressed, first low, than high and than again low, as in English ''seek'', Italian ''Gino'', ''Marco'').
#Short rising (''kratkouzlazni''; symbol ` – grave)as in ''màskara'' (meaning eye makeup). Pronunciation: (the first 'a' is slightly stressed, the second 'a' is higher than the first one, and the third 'a' is even higher than the second one, as in German ''Arbeiter'', ''Matratze'').
#Long rising (''dugouzlazni''; symbol ´) as in ''čokoláda'' (meaning chocolate). Pronunciation: ('a' is stressed, longer than the other vowels, and the intonation is slightly rising, as in German ''Balade'' or ''Schokolade'').
The "finest" realization—the differences between the accents are relatively small, words are pronounced without any special effort—can be found in the most respectable vernaculars of Piva and Drobnjak and in Belgrade and partly in familiar vernaculars in Kolubara district and south-western Banat. These two groups of vernaculars gave the base for Belgrade old speaker school. Already in surronding Nikšić (Montenegro), Dubrovnik (Croatia), Užice (Serbia) area stress is more intensive.
Modern surveys have shown for instance, that there is a minimal difference in Piva and Drobnjak (where the family of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić had come from) between the syllables that carry short-stressed accent with fall intonation and the short-stressed with rise intonation. In the first edition of Vuk's dictionary (1818), Vuk even marked these two accents as one and the same accent.^[7] The difference between the short-stressed accent with falling acentuation and the short-stressed with rise accent is almost lost in two-syllable words (cf. the surveys of Pavle Ivić on Serbian prosody).^[8] The 'informal' speech- slang in Belgrade has very special, neutralized accentuation (the oppositions falling/rising, short/long is only partly based on genuine word accents, far more on phonetic letter structure of the word).

Unstressed (postaccent) lengths

Not only the stressed syllables can be short or long. Other syllables have that feature as well. In neo-shtokavian vernaculars, the unstressed long syllable (unstressed length) can occur only after the accented syllable (these lengths are usually called ''postaccent lengths''. Their symbol is macron (-): ''dèvōjka'' (meaning girl), ''Jugòslāvīja'' (Yugoslavia).
The phonetic realization of postaccent lengths is different. In vernaculars of Piva and Drobnjak they are rather very short, without any stress components. In some other East-Herzegowinian vernaculars, they are almost stressed (of course, less intense than the really stressed syllable). In many vernaculars—for instance in Belgrade, and in many places in Vojvodina—postaccents lengths are ''almost'' lost. That's why foreign students are not expected to pay much attention to them.

History

Before 1400, most Serbian vernaculars had two accents, both with fall intonation—the short one and the long one. That is why they are called "old accents". By 1500, the old accents moved by one syllable towards the beginning of the word, changing their quality to rising accents. For instance junâk (hero) became jùnāk. The old accents, logically remained only when they were on first syllable. Not all dialects had that evolution; those who had it are called neo-shtokavian. The irradiation point was in east Herzegovina, between Prokletije mountains and town of Trebinje. Since the 1500s people had been emigrating from this area. The biggest migrations were to the north, then toward Military Krajina and to the seaside (Dubrovnik area, including islands of Mljet and Šipan). In 1920s and 1930s royal government tried to settle people from this poor mountainous area to Kosovo basin. Vojvodina was settled with inhabitants from this area after the WW II.
When all old accents had moved to the beginning of the word for one syllable, this was the result:

★ In words with two or more syllables the last syllable cannot be stressed

★ One-syllable words can have only falling accents

★ In polysyllabic words, if an inner syllable is stressed, then it can have only a rising accent (there are exceptions- in standard and in many vernaculars, for instance when there is a ` - - combination)

★ In a word with two or more syllables, if the first syllable is stressed, than it can have any of the four accents.

Grammar

Morphology

Declension

There are seven cases in Serbian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental and locative. It is commonly mistaken, that locative and dative have the same form, and that morphologically the number of cases is six. The accent is in many examples different in dative and locative: cf. strâni "to the site" (dative)/ (na) stráni "on the site" (locative) or (ka) sâtu "to the clock(tower)"/ (na) sátu "on the clock".
The number of cases, in concert with a non-fixed word-order, can make Serbian difficult to learn for speakers of languages without a strong case system.

Conjugation

''Further in'' Serbian conjugation
Serbian verbs are conjugated in 4 past tenses - perfect, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic); 1 future tense (aka 1st future tense - as opposed to the 2nd future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and 1 present tense. These are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood. The conditional mood has two more tenses, the 1st conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses), and the 2nd conditional (without use in spoken language - it should be used for impossible conditional clauses). Serbian language has active and passive voice.
As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian language has 1 infinitive, 2 adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and 2 adverbial participles (the present and the past).

Syntax

The default word order is Subject-Verb-Object. However, since inflection in most cases uniquely determines the role in sentence, Serbian is mostly a free word order language, and as such it is often cited by Chomsky and other generative syntacticians.
In Serbian, the sentence "Grandpa makes brandy" can therefore variously be expressed thus:

★ Deda peče rakiju

★ Deda rakiju peče (Deda rakiju peče, ne staje.)

★ Peče deda rakiju (Šta radiš, deda? - Peče deda rakiju, sine.)

★ Peče rakiju deda (Peče deda rakiju, sine)

★ Rakiju deda peče (Rakiju deda peče, sine.)

★ Rakiju peče deda (Rakiju peče deda, sine.)
All six orders can be stressed in three ways - the first option stressing either WHO makes brandy, WHAT is made by Grandpa, or WHO makes brandy. However, althoug possible, some word orders may appear unnatural out of the context.

Vocabulary

★ Most of the words in Serbian are of Slavic origin. That means that their roots continue some words reconstructed for Proto-Slavic language. For instance, ''srce'' "heart", ''plav'' "blue".

★ There are many loanwords from different languages:
#There are plenty of loanwords from German. The great number of them are specific for vernaculars which were situated in ''Austrian monarchy'' (Vojvodina, Slavonija, Lika and partly Bosnia). Most cultural words attested before World War II, were borrowed from (or via) German, even when they are of French or English origin (''šorc'', ''boks''). The accent is an excellent indicator for that, since German loanwords in Serbian have rising accents.
#Italian words in standard language were often borrowed via German (''makarone''), or, if they were taken directly from Italian, they show specific, not regular adaptations. For instance špagète for Italian ''spaghetti'' instead of "expected" špàgete.
##On the other side, as in Croatian, there are plenty of Italian loanwords in the coastal vernaculars (in Spič, Paštrovići, Boka Kotorska, Dubrovnik area and at Kvarner coast), as in the vernaculars near the coаst. In some Croatian vernaculars Italian Loanwords made up to 40-50% vernacular vocabulary in 1930s. Most present are words borrowed from Venetian (''brancin'', ''altroke'', ''ardura'', ''karonja'' "lazy man", ''pršut(a)''). Some toponims as ''Budva'' and ''Boka Kotorska'' (meaning bay of Kotor actually) are borrowed from Venetian.
##In the coastal area, many words were borrowed from the by 1900 extinct Dalmatian language (''murina'', ''imbut''), which was a Romance language, like Italian or French. Many toponyms were also borrowed from Dalmatian (''Kakrc'', ''Luštica'', ''Lovćen'', ''Sutomore''< ''Sancta Maria'').^[9]
#The number of Turkish loanwords is very large. However, these words are quickly disappearing from the standard language, and at a faster rate than any other language's contributions. In Belgrade, for instance,''čakšire'' (''чакшире'') was before World War II, the only word for ''trousers'', today ''pantalone'' (''панталоне''); some 30-50 years ago ''avlija'' (''авлија'') was common word for courtyard or backyard in Belgrade, today it is ''dvorište'' (двориште); only 15 years ago ''čaršav'' (''чаршав'') was usual for tablecloth, today it is ''stoljnjak'' (''стољњак''). The greatest number of Turkish loanwords had and have vernaculars of south Serbia (including Kosovo), followed by those of Bosnia and Herzegovina and central Serbia. Many of Turkish loanwords are usual in vernaculars of Vojvodina, Slavonija, Montenegro and Lika as well.^[10]
#Greek loanwords are very common in Old Serbian (Serbian-Slavonic). Some words are present and common in modern vernaculars in central Serbia (and also in other areas) and in the standard language: ''hiljada'' (хиљада), ''tiganj'' (тигањ), ''patos'' (патос). Many words of Orthodox ceremony are of Greek origin (''parastos'' (парастос)).^[11]
#The number of Hungarian loanwords in the standard language is small (''bitanga'' (''битанга''), ''alas'' (''алас''), ašov (''ашов'')). However, they are present in some vernaculars of Vojvodina and Slavonia and also in historical documents, local literature. Some place names in northern central Serbia as Barajevo, are probably of Hungarian origin.^[12]

★ Classical international words (words mainly with Latin or Greek roots) are adapted in Serbian like in most European languages, not translated as in Croatian.

★ Two Serbian words that are used in many of the world's languages are vampire,^[13] and paprika,^[14]. Slivovitz and ćevapčići are also Serbian words spred together with Serbian food/drink they reffer to. ^[15] . The ways of borrowing were not always same. ''Paprika'' and ''slivovitz'' are borrowed via German. Paprika itself is borrowed in German via Hungarian. ''Vampire'' spread in many languages via novel.

Serbian literature

Main articles: Serbian literature

''Miroslavljevo jevanđelje'' (The Gospel of Miroslav), a manuscript, ca. 1180

Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as ''Miroslavljevo jevanđelje'' (Miroslav's Gospel) in 1192 and ''Dušanov zakonik'' (Dušan's Code) in 1349. Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, ''Serbian Alexandride'', a book about Alexander the Great, and a translation of ''Tristan and Iseult'' into Serbian. Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 1300s and 1400s contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on the matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic.
In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and, for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature. However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being Serbian epic poetry. The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to 1950s, that is few centuries or even a millennium longer then by most other "epic folks". Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian language in order to read Serbian epic poetry in original. By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from the spoken language. In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian. This artificial idiom superseded works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović, who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in 1720s- just, these vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić. In the early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm.
The first printed book in Serbian, ''Oktoih'' was printed in Cetinje in 1494, 40 years after Gutenberg's invention of movable type.

Dictionaries

Serious Serbian and Croatian dictionaries regularly include Croatian only, and Serbian only words. Three Serbian words that are used in many of the world's languages are vampire, paprika (borrowed via Hungarian), and slivovitz.

Standard dictionaries

★ ''Rečnik sprkohrvatskog književnog i narodnog jezika'' (Dictionary of Serbian standard language and vernaculars) is the biggest dictionary of Serbian language and still unfinished. Starting with 1959, 16 volumes were published, about 40 are expected. Works of Croatian authors are excerpted, if published before 1991.

★ ''Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika'' in 6 volumes, started as a common project of Matica srpska and Matica hrvatska, but only the first three volumes were also published in Croato-Serbian (hrvatskosrpski).

★ There are no high-standard volume dictionaries whether of Serbian nor of Croatian language. Matica srpska is preparing one. Several volume dictionaries were published in Croatia (for Croatian language) during the 90s and till today (''Anić'', ''Enciklopedijski rječnik'', ''Hrvatski rječnik''). .

Bilingual (English-Serbian & Serbian-English) dictionaries

★ Standard dictionaries

★ Specialized dictionaries

★ Phraseological dictionaries

Historical dictionaries

The ''Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika'' (I-XXIII), published by Yugoslav academy of sciencies and arts (JAZU) from 1880 to 1976 is the only general historical dictionary of Serbian language. His first editor was Đuro Daničić, followed by Pero Budmani and famous "vukovac" Toma Maretić. The sources are, especially in first volumes, mainly shtokavian.

Etymological dictionaries

The standard and the only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian language is so-called "Skok":
Petar Skok. ''Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika''. I-IV. Zagreb 1971-1974.
There is also a new monumental ''Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika'' (Etymological dictionary of Serbian language). Up to now, two volumes were published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd).
There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Dalmatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf. chapter ''word origin'').

Dialect dictionaries

★ Kosovsko-resavski dialect dictionaries:
:Gliša Elezović, Rečnik kosovsko-metohiskog dijalekta I-II. 1932/1935.

★ Prizren-Timok (Torlakian) dialect dictionaries:
:Brana Mitrović, Rečnik leskovačkog govora. Leskovac 1984.
:Nikola Živković, Rečnik pirotskog govora. Pirot, 1987.
:Miodrag Marković, Rečnik crnorečkog govora I-II. 1986/1993.
:Jakša Dinić, Rečnik timočkog govora I-III.1988-1992.
:Momčilo Zlatanović, Rečnik govora južne Srbije. Vranje, 1998, 1–491.

★ East-Herzegowinian dialect dictionaries:
:Milija Stanić, Uskočki rečnik I–II. Beograd 1990/1991.
:Miloš Vujičić, Rečnik govora Prošćenja kod Mojkovca. Podgorica, 1995.
:Srđan Musić, Romanizmi u severozapadnoj Boki Kotorskoj. 1972.
:Mihailo Bojanić/ Rastislava Trivunac, Rječnik dubrovačkog govora. Beograd 2003.
:Svetozar Gagović, Iz leksike Pive. Beograd 2004.

★ Zeta-Pester dialect:
:Rada Stijović, Iz leksike Vasojevića. 1990.
:Drago Ćupić — Željko Ćupić, Rečnik govora Zagarača. 1997.
:Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Crnoj Gori — jugoistočni dio Boke Kotorske. Cetinje — Titograd, 1981.
:Vesna Lipovac-Radulović, Romanizmi u Budvi i Paštrovićima. Novi Sad 1997.

★ Others:
:Rečnik sprskih govora Vojvodine. Novi Sad.
:M. Peić — G. Bačlija, Rečnik bačkih Bunjevaca. Novi Sad 1990.
:Mile Tomić, Rečnik radimskog govora — dijaspora, Rumunija. 1989.

Geographic distribution

Figures of speakers according to countries:

★ Serbia: 6,770,000

★
★ Vojvodina: 1,557,020 (''2002'')

★
★ Central Serbia: 5,063,679 (''2002'')

★
★ Kosovo: 150,000

★ Montenegro: 401,382 (''2003'')

★ Bosnia-Herzegovina: 1,600,000

★ Germany: around 507,000

★ USA: around 500,000

★ Canada: 55,545 (2001 census, 40,580 of that in Ontario)

★ Croatia: 44,629 (''2001'')

★ Republic of Macedonia: 33,315 (''2001'')

★ Romania: 20,377 (''2001'')

★ Australia: 50,000 (''2001'')

Differences to similar languages

''Main article: Differences in official languages in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia''

References

1. Cf. The "Službeni list SFRJ" (Federal Gazette), was published from 1974 to 1991 in Serbo-Croat, Croato-Serbian, Macedonian, Slovenian and in the languages of national minorities
2. Serbian Cafe.com: Ankete
3. Ćirilički računarski programi kao uslov opstanka srpske pismenosti i kulture Dragoljub Petrović
4. Consonant-Vowel Interactions in Serbian: Features, Representations and Constraint Interactions, Bruce Morén, Center for Advanced Study of Theoretical Linguistics, Tromsø, 2005
5. A Handbook of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, Wayles Brown and Theresa Alt, SEELRC 2004
6. P. Ivic, Dva glavna pravca razvoja konsonantizma u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Iz istorije srpskohrvatskog jezika, Niš 1991, p. 82ff.
7. Cf. preface by P. Ivić in reprint editon (1968)
8. Word and sentence prosody in Serbocroatian, by Ilse Lehiste and Pavle Ivić. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986.
9. Cf. Vinja, Vojmir. Jadranske etimologije I-III. Zagreb 1998-.
10. Škaljić, Abdulah. Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku. 1988 (1958).
11. Vasmer, Max. Griechische Lehnwörter im Serbokroatischen. 1943.
12. Hadrovics, László. Ungarische Elemente im Serbokroatischen. Köln / Wien. 1985
13. cf.: Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm. 16 Bde. [in 32 Teilbänden. Leipzig: S. Hirzel 1854-1960.], s.v. Vampir; Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé; Dauzat, Albert, 1938. Dictionnaire étymologique. Librairie Larousse; Wolfgang Pfeifer, Етymologisches Woerterbuch, 2006, p. 1494; Petar Skok, Etimologijski rjecnk hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika, 1971-1974, s.v. Vampir; Tokarev, S.A. et al. 1982. Mify narodov mira. ("Myths of the peoples of the world". A Russian encyclopedia of mythology); Stachowski, Kamil. 2005. Wampir na rozdrożach. Etymologia wyrazu upiór - wampir w językach słowiańskich. W: Rocznik Slawistyczny, t. LV, str. 73-92; Russian Etymological Dictionary by Max Vasmer. Retrieved on 2006-06-13
14. Wolfgang Pfeifer, Etymologisches Woerterbuch, 2003, p. 968-969; Petar Skok, Etimologijski rjecnika hrvatskoga ili srpskog ajezika, 1971-1974, s.v. papar
15. for instance cf. DUDEN- Universalwoerterbuch, s.v. Schliwowitz

External links

★ Standard language as an instrument of culture and the product of national history — an article by linguist Pavle Ivić at ''Project Rastko''

★ Dueling Scripts: The Ongoing War Between Latin and Cyrillic, ''Serbianna.com'', 23 January 2007

★ Serbian language forum. Discussion on all aspects of Serbian language

★ Serbian School Learn Serbian online for free.

★ Serbian Language and Culture Workshop

★ Serbian vocabulary learning tool

Online dictionaries

★ Vokabular, online Serbian-Serbian dictionary, Cyrillic and Latin

★ Serbian (Latin Script) Dictionary from Webster's Dictionary

★ English-Serbian-English On-line Dictionary

★ Metak - Serbian-English dictionary

This article provided by Wikipedia. To edit the contents of this article, click here for original source.

psst.. try this: add to faves

	Heavenly Paradise Getaways
	Dancing Moon Travel
	Aquaworld Cancun
	Riad Karmela
	Delight Tours & Travel
	Travel Counsellors (Canada) Ltd
	Destination Quebec
	Travelonly - Joann Kaszyca
	Rx 4 Fun Travel, LLC
	Travelonly - Mary Lynn Villeneuve,ACC