SANSKRIT GRAMMAR
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The main features of the grammar of Sanskrit are a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive use of compound nouns. The grammar of Sanskrit was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians over two millennia ago,
Main articles: Sanskrit grammarians
'Sanskrit' grammatical tradition ('', one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and culminated in the '' of (ca. 5th century BC), which consists of 3990 sutras (rules). After a century from (around 400 BC) KÄtyÄyana composed VÄrtikas on an sÅ©tra. Patañjali, who lived three centuries after , wrote the '', the "Great Commentary" on the and VÄrtikas. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called 'Trimuni VyÄkarana' (i.e., grammar of three sages). To understand the meaning of sutras, JayÄditya and VÄmana had written a commentry KÄÅ›ikÄ 600 AD. 's (12th century AD) commentary on Patañjali's also exerted much influence on the development of grammar. But more influential was the ''RupÄvatÄra'' of Buddhist scholar DharmakÄ«rti which popularised simplified versions of Sanskrit grammar. After these ancient and early mediaeval scholars, the most influential work was ''SiddhÄnta Kaumudi'' (and its various versions) of , which is still regarded as a must for Sanskrit scholars.
an grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras. Here whole MÄtrika (alphabet) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called PratyÄhÄra.[1]
Indian grammatical tradition surives to the present day, with scholars such as Vagish Shastri, who has developed a mnemonic method.[2][3]
Main articles: Sanskrit verbs
Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs (plus one used in the Vedas : the lakÄr)divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an ''a'', called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication.
The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
★ Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
★ Perfect
★ Aorist
★ Future (Future, Conditional)
The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. ''abhÅ«'' "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with ''mÄ'' in prohibitions, e.g. ''mÄ bhÅ«'' "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – ''a-'' prefixed to the stem. The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the sibilant aorist, and the reduplicating aorist, which is semantically related to the causative verb.
The future system is formed with the suffixation of ''sya'' or ''iya'' and gua. Verbs then conjugate as though they were thematic verbs in the present system. The imperfect of the future system is used as a conditional.
Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.
Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.
Main articles: Sanskrit nouns
Sanskrit is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative.
The number of actual declensions is debatable. Panini identifies six ''kÄrakas'' corresponding to the nominative, accusative, dative, instrumental, locative, and ablative cases [1]. defines them as follows (AshtÄdhyÄyi, I.4.24-54):
# ''ApÄdÄna'' (lit. 'take off'): "(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)." This is the equivalent of the ablative case, which signifies a stationary object from which movement proceeds.
# ''SampradÄna'' ('bestowal'): "he whom one aims at with the object". This is equivalent to the dative case, which signifies a recipient in an act of giving or similar acts.
# '' ("instrument") "that which effects most." This is equivalent to the instrumental case.
# '' ('location'): or "substratum." This is equivalent to the locative case.
# ''Karman'' ('deed'/'object'): "what the agent seeks most to attain". This is equivalent to the accusative case.
# ''KartÄ'' ('agent'): "he/that which is independent in action". This is equivalent to the nominative case. (On the basis of Scharfe, 1977: 94)
Possessive (''Sambandha'') and vocative are absent in 's grammar.
In this article they are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.
The basic scheme is given in the table below—valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the ending consonant/vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are predetermined rules of compulsory ''sandhi'' which would then give the final inflected word. The parentheses give the case-terminations for the neuter gender, the rest are for masculine and feminine gender. Both devanagari script and IAST transliterations are given.
The numbers from one to ten are:
# éka
# dvá
# trÃ
# catúr
# pañca
# ṣáṣ
# saptá, sápta
# aá¹£á¹Ã¡, áṣá¹a
# náva
# dáśa
The numbers one through four are declined. 'Éka' is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. 'Dvá' appears only in the dual. 'TrÃ' and 'catúr' are declined irregularly.
Main articles: Sanskrit pronouns and determiners
The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselves with one another.
Note: Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -''tas''; thus ''mat'' or ''mattas'', ''asmat'' or ''asmattas''.
The demonstrative ''ta'', declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.
Main articles: Sanskrit compounds
One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include:
; AvyayibhÄva :
:The first member of this type of nominal compounds is an indeclinable, to which another word is added so that the new compound also becomes indeclinable (i.e., avaya). Examples : yathÄ+Å›akti, upa+ (near ),etc. In avyayibhÄva compounds, first member has primacy (pÅ«rva-pada-pradhÄna), i.e., the whole compound behaves like an indeclinable due to the nature of the first part which is indeclinable.
; (determinative):
: Unlike the avyayibhÄva compounds, in compounds second member has primacy (uttara-pada-pradhÄna). There are many tatpuruas (one for each of the nominal cases, and a few others besides). In a tatpurua, the first component is in a case relationship with another. For example, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house ''for'' a dog. It would be called a "caturtitatpurua" (caturti refers to the fourth case—that is, the dative). Incidentally, "tatpurua" is a tatpurua ("this man"—meaning someone's agent), while "caturtitatpurua" is a KarmadhÄraya, being both dative, and a tatpurua. An easy way to understand it is to look at English examples of tatpuruas: "battlefield", where there is a genitive relationship between "field" and "battle", "a field of battle"; other examples include instrumental relationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling"). All these normal compounds are called vyadhikarana , because the case ending should depend upon the second member because semantically second member has primacy, but actually the case ending depends upon the first member. Litarally, vyadhikarana means opposite or different case ending. But when the case ending of both members of a compound are similar then it is called a KarmadhÄraya compound, or simply a KarmadhÄraya compound.
; (descriptive):
: It is a variety of as shown above, but treated separately. The relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial, e. g. uluka-yatu (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl.
Dvigu and nñ-samÄsa are varieties of , but are enumerated as separate types.
;Dvigu : In a karmadhÄraya compound one part behaves like an adjective for the other. :If the part behaving like an adjective is a number, it is called dvigu. Dvigu itself is a compound : dvau+gÄvau. In a dvigu componds, later part is principal, like a compound.
;nñ-samÄsa :
:Example : na + = v , in which 'n' vanishes and only 'only the 'a' of 'na' remains. But with words beginning with vowel this 'a' becomes 'an' : na+aśva > (na > a > an) anaśva.
; (co-ordinative) :
: These consist of two or more noun stems, connected in sense with 'and'. There are mainly two kinds of ''dvandva'' constructions in Sanskrit. The first is called ''itaretara dvandva'', an enumerative compound word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. e.g. ''rÄma-lakÅŸmaņau'' – Rama and Lakshmana, or ''rÄma-lakÅŸmaņa-bharata-Å›atrughnÄh'' – Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna. The second kind is called ''samÄhÄra dvandva'', a collective compound word, the meaning of which refers to the collection of its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the singular number and is always neuter in gender. e.g. ''pÄņipÄdam'' – limbs, literally hands and feet, from pÄņi = hand and pÄda = foot. According to some grammarians, there is a third kind of dvandva, called ''ekaÅ›eÅŸa dvandva'' or residual compound, which takes the dual (or plural) form of only its final constituent member, e.g. ''pitarau'' for mÄtÄ + pitÄ, mother + father, i.e. parents. According to other grammarians, however, the ''ekaÅ›eÅŸa'' is not properly a compound at all.
; (possessive):
: Bahuvrīhi, or "much-rice", denotes a rich person—one who has much rice. Bahuvrīhi compounds refer (by example) to a compound noun with no head -- a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound. For example, "low-life" and "block-head" are bahuvrihi compounds, since a low-life is not a kind of life, and a block-head is not a kind of head. (And a much-rice is not a kind of rice.) Compare with more common, headed, compound nouns like "fly-ball" (a kind of ball) or "alley cat" (a kind of cat). Bahurvrīhis can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice", or "much riced".
;Madhyama-pada-lopÄ«-samÄsa :
:It is that variety of ''KarmadhÄraya'' compound in which middle part vanishes. E.g., = deva; ÅšrÄ«yukta+ =
;Upapada-samÄsa :
:It is a variety of compound in which nouns make unions with verbs, like Kumbham+karoti = .
;Aluk-samÄsa :
:Case endings do not vanish, e.g., Ätmane+ padam = Ätmanepadam.
; (iterative)
: Repetition of a word expresses repetitiveness, e. g. dive-dive 'day by day', 'daily'.
Main articles: Sanskrit syntax
Because of Sanskrit's complex declension system the word order is free (with tendency toward SOV).
Grammatical tradition
Main articles: Sanskrit grammarians
'Sanskrit' grammatical tradition ('', one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and culminated in the '' of (ca. 5th century BC), which consists of 3990 sutras (rules). After a century from (around 400 BC) KÄtyÄyana composed VÄrtikas on an sÅ©tra. Patañjali, who lived three centuries after , wrote the '', the "Great Commentary" on the and VÄrtikas. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called 'Trimuni VyÄkarana' (i.e., grammar of three sages). To understand the meaning of sutras, JayÄditya and VÄmana had written a commentry KÄÅ›ikÄ 600 AD. 's (12th century AD) commentary on Patañjali's also exerted much influence on the development of grammar. But more influential was the ''RupÄvatÄra'' of Buddhist scholar DharmakÄ«rti which popularised simplified versions of Sanskrit grammar. After these ancient and early mediaeval scholars, the most influential work was ''SiddhÄnta Kaumudi'' (and its various versions) of , which is still regarded as a must for Sanskrit scholars.
an grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras. Here whole MÄtrika (alphabet) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called PratyÄhÄra.[1]
Indian grammatical tradition surives to the present day, with scholars such as Vagish Shastri, who has developed a mnemonic method.[2][3]
Verbs
Main articles: Sanskrit verbs
Classification of verbs
Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs (plus one used in the Vedas : the lakÄr)divided into in two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an ''a'', called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication.
Tense systems
The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
★ Present (Present, Imperfect, Imperative, Optative)
★ Perfect
★ Aorist
★ Future (Future, Conditional)
Present system
The present system includes the present and imperfect tenses, the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
Perfect system
The perfect system includes only the perfect tense. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
Aorist system
The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. ''abhÅ«'' "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with ''mÄ'' in prohibitions, e.g. ''mÄ bhÅ«'' "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – ''a-'' prefixed to the stem. The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the sibilant aorist, and the reduplicating aorist, which is semantically related to the causative verb.
Future system
The future system is formed with the suffixation of ''sya'' or ''iya'' and gua. Verbs then conjugate as though they were thematic verbs in the present system. The imperfect of the future system is used as a conditional.
Verbs: Conjugation
Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.
Basic conjugational endings
Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
| Active | Middle | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
| Primary | First Person | mi | vás | más | é | váhe | máhe |
| Second Person | si | thás | thá | sé | ÄÌthe | dhvé | |
| Third Person | ti | tás | ánti, áti | té | ÄÌte | ánte, áte | |
| Secondary | First Person | am | vá | má | Ã, á | váhi | máhi |
| Second Person | s | tám | tá | thÄÌs | ÄÌthÄm | dhvám | |
| Third Person | t | tÄÌm | án, ús | tá | ÄÌtÄm | ánta, áta, rán | |
| Perfect | First Person | a | vá | má | é | váhe | máhe |
| Second Person | tha | áthus | á | sé | ÄÌthe | dhvé | |
| Third Person | a | átus | ús | é | ÄÌte | ré | |
| Imperative | First Person | Äni | Äva | Äma | Äi | ÄvahÄi | ÄmahÄi |
| Second Person | dhÃ, hÃ, — | tám | tá | svá | ÄÌthÄm | dhvám | |
| Third Person | tu | tÄÌm | ántu, átu | tÄÌm | ÄÌtÄm | ántÄm, átÄm | |
Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.
Nominal inflection
Main articles: Sanskrit nouns
Sanskrit is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative.
The number of actual declensions is debatable. Panini identifies six ''kÄrakas'' corresponding to the nominative, accusative, dative, instrumental, locative, and ablative cases [1]. defines them as follows (AshtÄdhyÄyi, I.4.24-54):
# ''ApÄdÄna'' (lit. 'take off'): "(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)." This is the equivalent of the ablative case, which signifies a stationary object from which movement proceeds.
# ''SampradÄna'' ('bestowal'): "he whom one aims at with the object". This is equivalent to the dative case, which signifies a recipient in an act of giving or similar acts.
# '' ("instrument") "that which effects most." This is equivalent to the instrumental case.
# '' ('location'): or "substratum." This is equivalent to the locative case.
# ''Karman'' ('deed'/'object'): "what the agent seeks most to attain". This is equivalent to the accusative case.
# ''KartÄ'' ('agent'): "he/that which is independent in action". This is equivalent to the nominative case. (On the basis of Scharfe, 1977: 94)
Possessive (''Sambandha'') and vocative are absent in 's grammar.
In this article they are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.
The basic declension suffix scheme for nouns and adjectives
The basic scheme is given in the table below—valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the ending consonant/vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are predetermined rules of compulsory ''sandhi'' which would then give the final inflected word. The parentheses give the case-terminations for the neuter gender, the rest are for masculine and feminine gender. Both devanagari script and IAST transliterations are given.
| Singular | Dual | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -सॠ-s (-मॠ-m) | -औ -au (-ई -ī) | -असॠ-as (-इ -i) |
| Accusative | -अमॠ-am (-मॠ-m) | -औ -au (-ई -ī) | -असॠ-as (-इ -i) |
| Instrumental | -आ -Ä | -à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤®à¥ -bhyÄm | -à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥ -bhis |
| Dative | -ठ-e | -à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤®à¥ -bhyÄm | -à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¸à¥ -bhyas |
| Ablative | -असॠ-as | -à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤®à¥ -bhyÄm | -à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¸à¥ -bhyas |
| Genitive | -असॠ-as | -ओसॠ-os | -आमॠ-Äm |
| Locative | -इ -i | -ओसॠ-os | -सॠ-su |
| Vocative | -सॠ-s (- -) | -औ -au (-ई -ī) | -असॠ-as (-इ -i) |
Numerals
The numbers from one to ten are:
# éka
# dvá
# trÃ
# catúr
# pañca
# ṣáṣ
# saptá, sápta
# aá¹£á¹Ã¡, áṣá¹a
# náva
# dáśa
The numbers one through four are declined. 'Éka' is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. 'Dvá' appears only in the dual. 'TrÃ' and 'catúr' are declined irregularly.
Personal Pronouns and Determiners
Main articles: Sanskrit pronouns and determiners
The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselves with one another.
Note: Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -''tas''; thus ''mat'' or ''mattas'', ''asmat'' or ''asmattas''.
| First Person | Second Person | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | aham | ÄvÄm | vayam | tvam | yuvÄm | yÅ«yam |
| Accusative | mÄm, mÄ | ÄvÄm, nau | asmÄn, nas | tvÄm, tvÄ | yuvÄm, vÄm | , vas |
| Instrumental | mayÄ | ÄvÄbhyÄm | asmÄbhis | tvayÄ | yuvÄbhyÄm | |
| Dative | mahyam, me | ÄvÄbhyÄm, nau | asmabhyam, nas | tubhyam, te | yuvÄbhyÄm, vÄm | , vas |
| Ablative | mat | ÄvÄbhyÄm | asmat | tvat | yuvÄbhyÄm | |
| Genitive | mama, me | Ävayos, nau | asmÄkam, nas | tava, te | yuvayos, vÄm | , vas |
| Locative | mayi | Ävayos | asmÄsu | tvayi | yuvayos | |
The demonstrative ''ta'', declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.
| Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | sás | tÄú | té | tát | té | tÄÌni | sÄÌ | té | tÄÌs |
| Accusative | tám | tÄú | tÄÌn | tát | té | tÄÌni | tÄÌm | té | tÄÌs |
| Instrumental | téna | tÄÌbhyÄm | tÄÃs | téna | tÄÌbhyÄm | tÄÃs | táyÄ | tÄÌbhyÄm | tÄÌbhis |
| Dative | tásmÄi | tÄÌbhyÄm | tébhyas | tásmÄi | tÄÌbhyÄm | tébhyas | tásyÄi | tÄÌbhyÄm | tÄÌbhyas |
| Ablative | tásmÄt | tÄÌbhyÄm | tébhyam | tásmÄt | tÄÌbhyÄm | tébhyam | tásyÄs | tÄÌbhyÄm | tÄÌbhyas |
| Genitive | tásya | táyos | tásya | táyos | tásyÄs | táyos | tÄÌsÄm | ||
| Locative | tásmin | táyos | tásmin | táyos | tásyÄm | táyos | tÄÌsu | ||
Compounds(''samÄsa'')
Main articles: Sanskrit compounds
One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include:
; AvyayibhÄva :
:The first member of this type of nominal compounds is an indeclinable, to which another word is added so that the new compound also becomes indeclinable (i.e., avaya). Examples : yathÄ+Å›akti, upa+ (near ),etc. In avyayibhÄva compounds, first member has primacy (pÅ«rva-pada-pradhÄna), i.e., the whole compound behaves like an indeclinable due to the nature of the first part which is indeclinable.
; (determinative):
: Unlike the avyayibhÄva compounds, in compounds second member has primacy (uttara-pada-pradhÄna). There are many tatpuruas (one for each of the nominal cases, and a few others besides). In a tatpurua, the first component is in a case relationship with another. For example, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house ''for'' a dog. It would be called a "caturtitatpurua" (caturti refers to the fourth case—that is, the dative). Incidentally, "tatpurua" is a tatpurua ("this man"—meaning someone's agent), while "caturtitatpurua" is a KarmadhÄraya, being both dative, and a tatpurua. An easy way to understand it is to look at English examples of tatpuruas: "battlefield", where there is a genitive relationship between "field" and "battle", "a field of battle"; other examples include instrumental relationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling"). All these normal compounds are called vyadhikarana , because the case ending should depend upon the second member because semantically second member has primacy, but actually the case ending depends upon the first member. Litarally, vyadhikarana means opposite or different case ending. But when the case ending of both members of a compound are similar then it is called a KarmadhÄraya compound, or simply a KarmadhÄraya compound.
; (descriptive):
: It is a variety of as shown above, but treated separately. The relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial, e. g. uluka-yatu (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl.
Dvigu and nñ-samÄsa are varieties of , but are enumerated as separate types.
;Dvigu : In a karmadhÄraya compound one part behaves like an adjective for the other. :If the part behaving like an adjective is a number, it is called dvigu. Dvigu itself is a compound : dvau+gÄvau. In a dvigu componds, later part is principal, like a compound.
;nñ-samÄsa :
:Example : na + = v , in which 'n' vanishes and only 'only the 'a' of 'na' remains. But with words beginning with vowel this 'a' becomes 'an' : na+aśva > (na > a > an) anaśva.
; (co-ordinative) :
: These consist of two or more noun stems, connected in sense with 'and'. There are mainly two kinds of ''dvandva'' constructions in Sanskrit. The first is called ''itaretara dvandva'', an enumerative compound word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. e.g. ''rÄma-lakÅŸmaņau'' – Rama and Lakshmana, or ''rÄma-lakÅŸmaņa-bharata-Å›atrughnÄh'' – Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna. The second kind is called ''samÄhÄra dvandva'', a collective compound word, the meaning of which refers to the collection of its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the singular number and is always neuter in gender. e.g. ''pÄņipÄdam'' – limbs, literally hands and feet, from pÄņi = hand and pÄda = foot. According to some grammarians, there is a third kind of dvandva, called ''ekaÅ›eÅŸa dvandva'' or residual compound, which takes the dual (or plural) form of only its final constituent member, e.g. ''pitarau'' for mÄtÄ + pitÄ, mother + father, i.e. parents. According to other grammarians, however, the ''ekaÅ›eÅŸa'' is not properly a compound at all.
; (possessive):
: Bahuvrīhi, or "much-rice", denotes a rich person—one who has much rice. Bahuvrīhi compounds refer (by example) to a compound noun with no head -- a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound. For example, "low-life" and "block-head" are bahuvrihi compounds, since a low-life is not a kind of life, and a block-head is not a kind of head. (And a much-rice is not a kind of rice.) Compare with more common, headed, compound nouns like "fly-ball" (a kind of ball) or "alley cat" (a kind of cat). Bahurvrīhis can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice", or "much riced".
;Madhyama-pada-lopÄ«-samÄsa :
:It is that variety of ''KarmadhÄraya'' compound in which middle part vanishes. E.g., = deva; ÅšrÄ«yukta+ =
;Upapada-samÄsa :
:It is a variety of compound in which nouns make unions with verbs, like Kumbham+karoti = .
;Aluk-samÄsa :
:Case endings do not vanish, e.g., Ätmane+ padam = Ätmanepadam.
; (iterative)
: Repetition of a word expresses repetitiveness, e. g. dive-dive 'day by day', 'daily'.
Syntax
Main articles: Sanskrit syntax
Because of Sanskrit's complex declension system the word order is free (with tendency toward SOV).
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