The 'Sakas' were the
Scythians who lived in the eastern part of
Central Asia. They are considered to be of north-eastern
Iranian people by modern scholars.
[1][2][3] They lived in what is now
Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan,
Afghanistan,
Pakistan,parts of
India and parts of
Iran, western part of
China in Khotan,
Ukraine, and
Altay Mountains and
Siberia in
Russia, in the centuries before 300.
''Saka'' is the usual
Persian term, while ''Scythian'' is a
Greek term. Some of their neighbours included the
Sarmatians,
Issedones and
Massagetae. Their language is poorly known, but seems to have originally been a member of the
Iranian family (though some question whether this applied to all strata of their society, or only the ruling class at various times). They were known to the
Chinese as the ''Sai'' (
Chinese: 塞,
Old Sinitic ''
★ sək'').
In
Akkadian, the Saka were called the ''Ashkuza'' and were closely associated with the ''Gimirri'', who were the
Cimmerians known to the
ancient Greeks. In ancient
Hebrew texts, the Ashkuz (
Ashkenaz) are even considered to be a direct offshoot from the Gimirri (Gomer).
Scythians and Sakas in classical sources
Modern historical accounts of the Indo-Scythian wars often assume that the ''
Scythian'' protagonists were a single tribe called the Saka (''Sakai'' or ''Sakas''). But earlier
Greek and
Latin texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to a much more widespread grouping of Central Asian peoples.
To
Herodotus (484-425 BC), the Sakai were the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i.e. ''Scythians from Ammyurgia'').
[4] Strabo (''Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo'', 63 BC-AD 24 circa) suggests that the term ''Skuthais'' (Scythians) referred to the Sakai and several other
tribes.
[5] Arrian (''Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' '', c92-175 AD), refers to the Sakai as Skuthon (''a Scythian people'') or the Skuthai (''the Scythians'') who inhabit
Asia.
[6]
It is clear that the Greek and Latin scholars cited here believed, ''all Sakai were Scythians'', but ''not all Scythians were Sakai''.
[7] It seems likely that modern confusion about the identity of the Scythians is partly due to the
Persians. According to Herodotus, the Persians called all Scythians by the name Sakas.
[8] Pliny the Elder (''Gaius Plinius Secundus'', 23–79 AD) provides a more detailed explanation, stating that the Persians gave the name Sakai to the Scythian tribes: "nearest to them".
[9] This likely explains why the Scythians began to be called Sakai.
Another clue to the true identity of the Scythians is the widespread area in which classical scholars thought they lived. The ancient
Greeks wrote that the homelands of the Scythian peoples included
Central Asia east of the
Caspian Sea, north of
Hindukush/
Karakoram and west of
China extending as far as
Siberia. This suggests Scythia was a generic term that was loosely applied to a vast area of Central Asia spanning numerous groups and diverse ethnicities.
Approximate extent of Scythia and
Sarmatia in the 1st century BC.
defined all the
Central Asian clans inhabiting the area east of the
Caspian Sea as Scythian in culture.
[10] Diodorus (''Diodorus Siculus'', c90–30 BC) said that ''Mt Hemodos'' was the dividing line between Scythia and India,
[11] ancient Greek sources used a variety of names for this mountain, including ''Himaos'', ''Imaos'' and ''Paropamisos'' but generally place it in the Himalayas.
[12]
Ptolemy (''Claudius Ptolemaeus'', c90-168) writes that Skuthia was not only "within the Imaos" (the Himalayas) and "beyond the Imaos" (north of the Himalayas), but also speaks of a separate "land of the Sakais" within Scythia
[13]. Both
Solinus and Pliny report that the
Ganges was one of the greatest rivers of
India and ''has its source in the Scythian mountains''
[14].
When ancient texts refer to the Sakai living in the Mt. Hemodos area or the
Himalayan region, they are also talking about a much wider area than the modern Himalayas. Greek texts refer to Mt. Hemodos as ''Kaukasos'', the
Caucasus, which is the Greek word for the entire
Hindukush region.
[15] In the ancient
Sanskrit/
Pali texts, the Himalayas spanned the eastern and western oceans and so included the Hindukush and
Karakoram ranges.
[16]
Ptolemy meanwhile says that the Scythian tribes living in the Hindukush ranges were only at the ''southern fringe of the Scythian world''. By this definition, the
Parama Kambojas tribe who lived in the far off
Transoxiana territory as distant as the
Fargana and
Zeravshan valleys were also Scythians.
With Scythia covering such a wide area, it is no wonder classical scholars like
Strabo and the ''Historiae Philippcae'' writings of 1st century BC Roman historian
Pompeius Trogus (''Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus''), classified any ''
Asio/
Asii or
Asiani'' and Kambojan
clans connected with ''horse culture'' as
Scythic races.
Strabo’s evidence
According to
Greek chronicler
Strabo [17],
Bactriana was taken by
nomads like ''
Asii/
Asio, Pasianoi, Tokhario and Sakarauloi'' who had originally come from country from other side of Jaxartes (''Central Asia'')
[18]. The prologus XLI of ''Historiae Philippcae'' also refers to the Scythian invasion of the Greek kingdom of
Bactria and
Sogdiana---the invaders are described as ''Saraucae'' and ''Asiani''
[19]. The Saraucae are Sacarauli and Asiani are
Asii or Asio of Strabo
[20]. These references conceal the information that after being turned out from
Issyk-Kul lake and in their movements to
Bactria via Sogdiana and Fargana, under pressure from Ta Yue-chih, the Issyk-kul Sakas (''Sakaraulois'') had been joined on the way by sections of other Scythian
tribes of the intervening regions during their southerly or south-westerly movements to
Bactria. The term ''Asio'' (or ''Asii'') obviously refers to ''horse People''
[21]and undoubtedly refers to the
Kambojas of the
Parama Kamboja domain whose ''Aswas'' or ''horses'' too have been glorified by
Mahabharata [22] as being of excellent quality. In fact, Asio, Asi/Asii, Asva/Aswa, Ari-aspi, Aspasios, Aspasii (or ''Hippasii'') are variant names the Classical writers have given to the horse-clans of the Kambojas of
Scythian domain
[23]. The Tokharios are assumed by some scholars to be
Rishikas. But the Rishikas were a closely affiliated to the
Parama-Kambojas as per Mahabharata evidence
[24]. Similarly, the ''Pasianois'' were another Scythian
tribe from
Central Asia. ''Saraucae'' or ''Sakarauloi'' obviously refers to the ''Saka proper'' from ''Issyk-kul Lake''. Some scholars tend to link the
Rishikas with
Tukharas and later with the ''Ta Yue-chis'' themselves. If one accepts this connection, then the Tukharas (
> Rishikas
> Yue-chihs) had controlled the eastern parts of Bactria country (''Ta-hia'') while the combined forces of the ''Sakarauloi'', 'Asio' (''horse people = Parama Kambojas'') and the 'Pasinoi' of
Strabo etc had occupied its western parts after being displaced from the original home in Fargana/Alai valley by the Ta-Yuechis. As stated earlier, Ta-hia is taken to mean Tukhara/Tokhara which also included
Badakshan,
Chitral,
Kafirstan and
Wakhan which are said to have formed eastern parts of
Bactria [25] According to other scholars, it were the Saka
hordes alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria
[26].
Location of the Sakas
Physical map of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.
It is proven in 3. century Sacaes had an own empire in west China in Khotan (in Kashgar) therefore sometimes Sacaes are as well called as Khotan-Sacaes. Because of the huns who pushed the Kushans out from their living areas Sacaes had to flee to south where they migrated in Sistan. The Sakas had at least three major settlements, ''Saka Haumavarka, Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Taradarya'', according to inscriptions left by King
Achaemenid Darius I (522-486 BC) in the city of
Hamadan and his royal seat of
Perspolis.
[27] However, scholars think these three settlements may be merely remnants of a much greater civilization left by the waves of
Scythian migrations back to the middle of the 8th century BC.
[28]
The Darian inscriptions say that the ''Sakas Haumavarka'' lived 'beyond
Sogdiana' (para-Sugudam) which when seen from
Perspolis, seems to point to Tashkant,
Fargana,
Kashgar and nearby regions.
[29] The ''Sakas Tigrakhauda'' lived near the
Arals in the lower valleys of the
Jaxartes as well as the plains north of the Jaxartes. The third Sakas settlement,''Sakas Taradarya'', was located north of the
Black Sea in the
Russian
Steppes.
[30]
There are also references to the ''Saka Haumavarka'' in ancient Indian texts. It seems likely that it was these Sakas Haumavarka and other allied tribes such as the Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc that lived in, and north of the
Pamir mountains as far as
Kashgar,
Fargana and
Issyk-Kul Lake, that entered into conflict with the Ta Yue-chi or Great Yue-chi and migrated into northern India.
[31] According to the evidence furnished by Mahabharata, the
Transoxian Pamir mountains and regions to the north as far as
Fargana were known as the lands of the allied ''Lohas, Parama Kambojas,
Rishikas'', etc
tribes
[32]. All these peoples living in the
Scythia of the classical writers or the ''Shakadvipa'' of
Indian texts, were lumped together and given the general name Sacae by
Greeks and
Sakas by the
Iranians. They were known as
Shakas in Indian texts
[33].
Connection theories
The following sections deal mostly with popular traditions of Saka descent found among numerous Asian and
European peoples.
Scythian origins
The
Scythian language is considered by mainstream historians and linguists as one of the
Iranian languages.
The Saka speakers were gradually conquered and acculturated by the
Turkic expansion to Central Asia beginning in the 4th century.
Saka (Scythian) horseman from
Pazyryk in Central Asia, c. 300 BC.
Ashkanian is the dynasty name of the
Parthian empire and sources indicate that the Parthian revolt against Greek dominance over Persia started in the
Semnan region.
Ashkanian means "Sakan people" or "Saka descendants". An Arab source names Sagsar as the place from which Ashkanians originated.
Sagsar, or according to varies sources, "Saka sar" or "Sagasar", is now modern
Sangsar, a city in the mountainous region of
Semnan Province, in the north of Iran.
Semnan is also derived from Sakestan, which during the Parthian empire was one of the largest provinces connecting the northern
Alborz mountains to eastern Iran bordering the
Kushan empire, now Pakistan and Afghanistan. Moreover, many of the legends recorded in the national
Persian epic,
Shahnameh are believed to be a mixture of
Persian,
Sogdian and Saka legends. Sagsar and Semnan are mentioned in Firdosi's
Shahnameh, particularly honoring the brave people of Sagsar and their couragous uprising against injustice. Sangsaris are still famous for being a sensitive people, proud of their culture and language, one of oldest and best preserved of ancient Iranian languages.
There is a
Sangsari dictionary containing 18000 words which is published in
Persian,
English and
French and an investigation of the language may help find valuable clues, keys concerning the Sakas.
Asian peoples
Gold artifacts of the Scythians in Bactria, at the site of
Tillia tepe.
The most notable Saka burial to date, whose occupant is referred to as the "
Golden Man", was found in
Kazakhstan. The silver dish found with the "Golden Man" is of a type common to other Germanic finds and is inscribed with a form of
runic writing related to that found in Germanic and Scandinavian runic writing. See
Issyk Kurgan.
Archeological evidence and histographies shows a worldview of Sakas, similar to that of ancient German and Scandinavian traditions and closely related to that of present-day Kazakhs and Mongols. It is theorized that they believed Man was a part of the
Universe,
Cosmos,
Heaven,
Sun, mountains, river, in total nature, and shows close affinities with
Shamanism and
Tengriism which are still practiced today, from Kazakhstan to Siberia which conceive of God as related to Cosmic laws and forces. However, modern Kazakhs are
Muslim, most modern
Mongols are
Buddhists, and Siberian
shamanism is not known to be directly connected to Indo-European religion.
Language of Sacaes
Today we know the Sacaes spoke a north-east iranic language. Actually we know just they had spoken first Old-Sacai(Avestan) and New-Sakai, a north-eastern dialect of Bactrians.
Saka era
Main articles: Shalivahana era
The Sakas were also one of several tribes that conquered
India from the northwest, where they established the rule of the
Indo-Scythians. The Saka Era is used by the
Indian national calendar, a few other
Hindu calendars, and the
Cambodian
Buddhist calendar—its year zero begins near the vernal equinox of
78. See
Kushan Empire article for more complex description of Kushan-Scythian dating.
There has been no strong genetic link discovered between the Kazakhs and peoples of India; however, the marker R1a1 accounts for more than 50% of Altay, Slavic and NW Indian/Pakistani males.
It is likely that by about 600 BC, Central Asia was occupied by a number of ethnic groups, all
nomadic equestrians sharing simple cultural traits.
Speculations about Celtic and Germanic connections
Some researchers have argued that both the
Celtic and
Germanic people came from an area southeast of the
Black Sea and migrated westward to the coast of
Europe, starting with the reign of the
Persian king
Cyrus the Great when they declined to help him in his conquest of the Babylonian empire.
Herodotus (440 BC) mentions a division of Persians known as ''Germanioi'' (''Hist''. 1.125). However, this is probably an imprecise rendering of the name
Kerman (later Greek sources have ''Karmanioi''), and thus, according to some sources, may have nothing to do with the Latin name of the Germanic people.
The adherents of the Saka theory point out that the burial customs of the Scythians and the
Vikings show certain similarities. Furthermore, the
Old English chroniclers write that when the
Saxons invaded England ca. 400 AD together with the
Angli, they "sent back to Scythia for reinforcements". The implication is that the Saxons considered themselves to be Scythians -- the name having traveled with them even though they were far away from the region the Greeks had labelled "Scythia". However, the chroniclers have most probably taken over the name Scythia and its somewhat imprecise usage from the Latin literature; Scythia was identified with Sweden because of a superficial similarity of the two names (due to the fact that Scythia was pronounced [sitia] in Medieval Latin).
According to some traditions, the Saka race, with an affiliated tribe under a different name, migrated to the area of the
Baltic Sea, and supposedly gave rise to the
Saxon tribe in the area of present day
Germany. This claim was cited in favour of
Nazi claims that Germans were "original descendants of the Aryan race". However, contemporary
philologists have rejected this notion, questioning the
archaeological evidence for major cultural contacts between anyone in Uzbekistan or Iran, and the Baltic area. Nevertheless, many Germans believe that there was a connection between people in Central Asia and their own ancestors who were migrants from the East.
Paul Pezon supports this theory, claiming that the Saka Scythians and the seemingly related
Cimmerians were ultimately ancestors to the Celts and Germans, and that the Germans fled the Baltic area when it was flooded by the rising sea level after the
Ice age. He believes that the German tribe
Cimbri have descended from a branch of the
Cimmerians.
Some philologists studying the Germanic languages disagree with this hypothesis. There is a distant relationship between the Iranic Saka and the Germanic people due to the fact that both speak Indo-European languages. Their common forefathers which gave rise to Germanic and Iranian probably lived somewhere near the Black Sea. However, the two languages don't have too much in common in addition to their common origin, and therefore the contact between them must have terminated at a relatively early stage.
Parama Kambojas and Saka connection
According to scholars, term Kamboja may be explained as ''Kam+boja''. ''Boja'' is the
Iranian equivalent of the
Sanskrit ''Bhoja'' which means Lord or King or Master
[34]. Thus, Kambojas may be explained as Lords or Masters or Rulers of ''Kam'' country.
The root ''Kam'' implying place or region is reflected in the ''Kama''
valley, a region lying between the
Khyber Pass and
Jalalabad. It is also reflected in the place names ''Kama''-daka, ''Kamma''-Shilman, ''Kama''-bela of
Kabol; in the ''Kam''desh or ''Kam''brom, ''Kam''ich, ''Kama'' and ''Kamu'' & ''Kama''tol of the
Kunar and Bashgul valleys. It is further reflected in the vast expanses of the region called Kazal-''kam'' and Kara-''kam'' lying on either side of the
Oxus north of
Hindukush in parts of
Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan. There is also a river named ''Kama'' in the Russian
Steppes. Kambah is also said to be name of an ancient town some destinations north-west of Samarkhand in
Uzbekistan[35].
The
Ptolemian term ''Kamoi'' also refers to a people of the region falling in the Oxus/Jaxartes
doab. According to Dr Seth, it seems highly likely that the ancient Kambojas had their habitats in the doab of the river Vamksu (
Oxus) and Syr (
Jaxartes) (''ancient Suguda'') and beyond in the hilly regions of Syr. The territory is watered by numerous tributaries of the
Oxus and
Jaxartes and was referred to as Komdei by
Ptolemy.
Roman historian
Ammianus Marcellinus (325 AD‑330 AD) labelled the mountainous region of Suguda as Komedas
[36].
These names seem to point towards 'Komdesh' (''Kambojdesh ?'') which was the original home of the Kambojas
[37].
Ptolemy has also stated that there is a
tribe variously called Komroi, Komedei or 'Komoi' which occupies the highlands of
Bactriaa and Sogdiana countries
[38].
Al-Maqidisi in his book ''Al-Muqhni'' calls the people of this territory ''Kumiji'' a name that apparently points to the
Sanskrit Kamboja. The Komdei of Ptolemy has been identified with the ''Kiumito'' of
Hiun Tsang [39]. Scholars have identified this Kiumito as the habitat of Iranian Kambojas
[40]. The ''Kumuda-dvipa'' of the
Puranas is said to lie to north of
Pamirs in the
Tartary region and is equivalent to the Komdei of Ptolemy and the Kumadas of Ammianus Marcellinus.
The fifth century
Sanskrit poet
Kalidasa attests that the
Hunas and Kambojas lived as neighbors in their respective west and east Oxus valleys
[41].
Rajatarangini of
Kalhana also refers to
Tukharas and
Kambojas living respectively in the west and east
Oxus valleys, during the 8th century AD
[42].
Scholars believe that the Kiumito of
Hiun Tsang is same as the Kamboja of Raghuvamsa and of Rajatarangini and represents the Iranian section of the Kambojas
[43]. The Kumuda or Kumuda-dvipa of Indian texts and the Komdei of Ptolemy lay in the ''Shaka-dvipa'' per
Mahabharata and
Puranic texts
[44]. Komdei apparently refers to the region which has been called Parama Kamboja in Mahabharata
[45]. This was the region where the Rishikas, Parama Kambojas, Lohas and other allied people dwelt.
Needless to say that all these people including the Parama Kambojas were Scythians by culture for obvious reasons. Writing on the Rishikas, Dr V. S. Aggarwala observes: “The name
Rishika occurs in Mahabharata as a part of 'Shakadvipa'.
Arjuna had conquered Rishikas across the Vakshu (Oxus) which flowed through the Shaka country.” As the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were all neighborly tribes and were allied in their fight against Arjuna
[46], this strongly suggests that the
Transoxian Lohas and Parama Kambojas were also located in Shakadvipa or Scythia.
Dr Bailey lists several breeds of Kamboja horses and states that their ''haya-'' and ''javana-'' breeds ( 'swift horse') refer to the famous horses of the
Farghana breed
[47]. Praja Bhata, a
Kashmiri
Sanskrit poet and author of the ''fourth Rajatarangini'' while writing about the history of
Moghul dynasty in
India, addresses
emperor Babur as a
Yavana king hailing from
Kambhoja [48]. Since Vabur (Babur) was native of
Fargana (in
Kyrgyzstan of
Central Asia), this Indian reference seems to extend the Kamboja i.e the Parama Kamboja domain almost as far as to Fargana.
Thus the foregoing discussion sufficiently proves that the territory of the Parama Kambojas lay in a region beyond ''Imaos'' or
Himalaya/
Hindukush, the region that ancient
Sanskrit texts such as
Mahabharata labelled ''Shakadvipa'' and classical writers Strabo and Diodorus define as part of
Scythia (see above). This allows the conclusion that ''the Parama Kambojas, the Rishikas and Lohas were Scythians''
[49].
According to
Serge Thion: ''“It seems from some inscriptions that the Kambojas were a royal clan of the Sakas better known under the Greek name of Scyths” ''
[50] .
Sakas in Ancient Indian Literature
The Indo-Scythians were named "
Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saca used by the Persians to designate Scythians. Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the
Puranas, the
Manusmriti, the
Ramayana, the
Mahabharata, the Mahabhasya of
Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Varaha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-Katha-Manjari, the Katha-Saritsagara and several other old texts. The Shakas are described as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest.
The
Buddha Gotama was recorded of being of the tribe of the Sakas, his father being a king of the Kshatriya caste. His title Sakyamuni means "sage of the Sakas". But this is a common misconception. The
Buddha belonged to an Indo-Aryan tribe called "Sakya"(not "Saka")
"Degraded Kshatriyas" from the northwest
The
Manusmriti, written about
200, groups the Shakas with the
Yavanas,
Kambojas, Paradas,
Pahlavas, Kiratas and the Daradas, etc., and addresses them all as "degraded warriors" or
Kshatriyas" (X/43-44).
Anushasanaparva of the
Mahabharata also views the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas etc... in the same light.
Patanjali in his
Mahabhashya regards the Shakas and Yavanas as pure
Shudras (II.4.10).
The
Vartika of the
Katyayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the
Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective
tribal names.
The
Mahabharata also associates the Shakas with the
Yavanas,
Gandharas,
Kambojas,
Pahlavas,
Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, etc. and addresses them all as the
Barbaric tribes of
Uttarapatha. In another verse, the same epic groups the Shakas and
Kambojas and
Khashas and addresses them as the tribes from Udichya i.e north division (5/169/20). Also, the
Kishkindha Kanda of the
Ramayana locates the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the
Himavat (i.e.
Hindukush) (43/12).
Military actions
Ancient wars (1500-500 BC)
According to numerous
Puranas, the military corporations of the Shakas,
Yavanas,
Kambojas,
Pahlavas and Paradas, known as "five
hordes" (''pānca-ganah''), had militarily supported the Haihaya and Talajunga
Kshatriyas in depriving Ikshvaku king Bahu (the 7th king in descent from Harishchandra), of his
Ayodhya kingdom.
A generation later, Bahu's son Sagara managed to recapture Ayodhya after defeating these foreign hordes. Sagara punished them by meting out to them weird punishments. He made the Shakas shave half of their heads, the Kambojas and the Yavanas the totality, the Pahlavas to keep their beards and the Paradas to let their hair go free.
The
Kalika Purana, one of the Upa-Puranas of the
Hindus, refers to a war between
Brahmanical king ''Kalika'' (supposed to be
Pusyamitra Sunga) and
Buddhist king ''Kali'' (supposed to be
Maurya king
Brihadratha (187-180 BC)) and states the ''Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas'', etc. as a powerful military allies of king Kali. The Purana further states that these
Barbarians ''take the orders from their women'' (Ref: Kalika Purana, III(6), 22-40).
The Balakanda of the
Ramayana also groups the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Mlechhas and refers to them as military allies of
sage Vashistha against
Vedic king
Vishwamitra (55/2-3).
The Udyogaparva of the
Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas had participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of Kamboja king
Sudakshina. The
epic repeatedly applauds this composite army as being very fierce and wrathful.
Military alliance with Chandragupta (circa 320 BC)
The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadutta and the
Jaina works Parisishtaparvan refer to
Chandragupta's alliance with
Himalayan king Parvataka.
This
Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the frontier martial tribes of the
Shakas,
Kambojas,
Yavanas, Parasikas,
Bahlikas etc which he utilised to defeat the
Nanda rulers of
Magadha, and thus establishing his
Mauryan Empire in northern India (See: Mudrarakshas, II).
Invasion of India (circa 180 BC)
The Vanaparva of the Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy that the kings of the
Shakas,
Yavanas,
Kambojas,
Bahlikas and
Abhiras etc shall rule unrighteously in
Kaliyuga (MBH 3/188/34-36).
This reference apparently alludes to the precarious political scenario following the collapse of
Mauryan and
Sunga dynasties in northern India and its occupation by foreign hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas.
Extinction
The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshemendra (10/1/285-86) relates that around
400 AD, the
Gupta king
Vikramaditya (
Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the
barbarians" like the
Shakas, Mlecchas,
Kambojas,
Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas,
Hunas, etc., by annihilating these "sinners" completely.
The 10th century ''Kavyamimamsa'' of Raj Shekhar (Ch. 17) still lists the Sakas, Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, etc. together, and states them as the tribes located in the
Uttarapatha division.
Sakas Today
Many communities in Asia COULD! be descendants of the Sakas. These could include:
★
Kambohs
★
Jats
★
Gujjars
★
Lohars
★
Dards
★
Rajputs
★
Tarkhans
For a while but some less scholars also Afghans were thought of beeing Saka´s descends but it is 'absolutely' unparable historically and linguistically Afghans (Pashtuns) are descends of Sacaes. Afghans either speak a north-eastern iranian language nor a bactrian dialect and nor they have any connections to Sacaes by terms or ethnic. Afghans are descends of the nomadic Ashvakas who belong to the greater Kambojas and were the first Aryan people who lived in the area of the sulaiman ranges. The same with the Nuristanis who belong to the Ashvas, too. Plus today many scholars are not sure if they shall count Pashto to the iranic languages or to a third branch of the indo-aryan languages in the group of the so-called Kafir-Languages. Another reason is Sacaes were driven further into India (into Rajastan) by Kushans where they became assimilated and became to a Kishatria-Clan for what Rajastan was for centuries famous of it´s rulers and nomadic warriors.
See also
★
Kambojas
★
Yona
★
Jat
★
Tarkhan
References
1. Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Press, 2004, pg 278
2. Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. pg 197
3. Edward A Allworth,''Central Asia: A Historical Overview'',Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.
4. History, VII, 64
5. Strabo, XI, 8, 2
6. Ambaseos Alexandrou, III, 8, 3
7. Dr B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.
8. Herodotus Book VII, 64
9. Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50
10. See: Lib.xi, p 254; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod
11. See: Indika, Fragment 1, Diodorus II.35; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod.
12. Qv: Nonnos Dionysiaca 40.260; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; See also: India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala etc.
13. Geography VI, 12, 1f; VI, 13; 1f, VI, 15, 1f
14. Megasthenes, Indika, FRAGM.XX.B.; FRAGM. LVI.; FRAGM. LVI. B., J. W. McCrindle's; Pliny. Hist. Nat. V1. 21.9-22. 1.; Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11.; Solinnus. 52. 6-17. 'See': http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm
15. Qv: Fragment IV, Strabo XV.i. II, p 689
16. Ref: Sumangavilasini, I.1; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 65
17. XI.8.2.
18. History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 11, Ed Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 692,717, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee
19. 'Aseni, Osii'(=Asii) and 'Asoi' clans are also referenced by Pliny (Pliny: Hist Nat., VI.21.8-23.11, ''List of Indian races'') and he locates them all in southern side of Hindukush. Bucephala was the capital of ''Aseni'' which stood on Hydaspes (Jhelum) (See: Alexander the Great, Sources and Studies, p 236, Dr W. W. Tarn; Political History of Indian People, 1996, p 232, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee). Alexander had named this city after his horse Becephalus when it had died sometime in June of 326 BC after being fatally wounded at the Battle of Hydaspes with king Porus (Paurava) of Punjab
20. History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 111; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692.
21. For Asii = Aswa = Horse-people, see: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, reprint (2002), pp 53-54, 64 fn 1 etc
22. MBH 8.38.13-14, 10.13.1-2; 7.23.42-43 etc.
23. For Asii/Aswa/Assaceni/Aspasio connection with horse, refer to Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), James Tod. E.g: "In Aswa, we have ancient race peopled on both sides of Indus and probable etymon of Asia. The Assaceni, the Ari-aspii, the Aspasians and (the Asii) whom Strabo describes as Scythic race have same origin. Hence ''Asi-gurh'' (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in Scandinavia" (See: ''Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64 fn 1. Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod.'' For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: The Pathans, 1958, pp 37, 55-56, Olaf Caroe. Pliny also refers to horse clans like ''Aseni, Osii, Asoi'' living in north-west of India (which were none-else than the Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kambojas of Indian texts). See: Hist. Nat. VI 21.8-23.11; See Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trans. and edited by Dr J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30-174.
24. ''Lohan. ParamaKambojan.Rishikan.uttaranapi'':MBH 2.27.25; '' 'Kambojarishika' ye cha'' MBH 5.5.15 etc.
25. Political History of Ancient India, 19996, Commentary, p 719, Dr B. N. Mukerjee. Cf: “It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chihs, and who were mistaken as Scythian people, particiapated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western by other nomadic people in about the same period. In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria was put to end in c 130/29 BC due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692-93, Dr B.N. Mukerjee). It is notable that before its occupation by Tukhara Yue-chis, Badakashan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i.e. Parama Kamboja country. But after its occupation by the Tukharas in second century BC, it became a part of Tukharistan. Around 4th-5th century, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally died down, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself and the region again started to be called by its ancient name Kamboja (See: Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, Dr J.C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 129, 300 Dr J.L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh). There are several later-time references to this Kamboja of Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha, a 5th c Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (4.68-70). They have also been attested as ''Kiumito'' by 7th c Chinese pilgrim Hiun Tsang. Eighth century king of Kashmir, king Lalitadiya had invaded the Oxian Kambojas as is attested by Rajatarangini of Kalhana (See: Rajatarangini 4.163-65). Here they are mentined as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, Dr D. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BC under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley. There are other references which equate Kamboja= Tokhara. A Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text (Dr N. Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B.S.O.A.S XIII, 404) has the expression ''satam Kambojikanam kanayanam'' i.e a hunderd maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in Tibetan as ''Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya'' and in Mongolian as ''Togar ulus-un yagun ükin''. Thus ''Kamboja'' has been rendered as ''Tho-gar'' or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, H. W. Bailey Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950 , pp. 389-409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, Dr H. W. Bailey.
26. Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, Dr S. Chattopadhyava.
27. Select Inscriptions bearing on the Indian History and Civilization, Vol I, p 10; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj
28. Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510, E. J. Rapson (Ed); Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 46, Dr M. R. Singh.
29. Some writers interpret the Darian inscription as locating Sakas Haumavarka north of Suguda (Sogdiana), in the plains of Jaxartes in the Issyk-Kul Lake area. Para-Sugudma seems a more reasonable location for Saka Haumavarka because there was a different Sakas settlement near Suguda to the north of Jaxartes in the lower valleys near Aral. Further, in reference to the Transoxiana Sakas, Arrian mentions the Sakas living not far from Bactria and Sugada, likely an allusion to Haumavarka Sakas living in Tashkant, Fargana and Kashgar (See: History and Culture of Indian People, Vol II, p 120).
30. See discussion in 'Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country', 1981, p 296 sqq., Dr J. L. Kamboj.
31. Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 381, 691-92, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury and Dr B. N. Murkerjee
32. Lohan paramakambojanrishikan uttaranpi...Mahabharata 2.27.25. 'See Ganguli's Trans': http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02026.htm. But it may be noted that Mr Ganguli has erroneously translated the expression ''Parama Kambojas'' as ''Eastern Kambojas'' which designation for ''Parama Kambojas'' is not correct and is misleading. Therefore see: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; cf: A Geographical Text of Puranas: A Further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No 1, Feb 1962, pp 112- sqq.; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, pp 207-14 etc
33. Dr Robert Shafer has recently reported that the Shakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Sugudas, etc were the left-over population of the Indo-Iranian Aryans after Aryans latter had moved from their original home in Central Asia to Iran and India (See Report: Ethnography of Ancient India, p 43, Robert Shafer)
34. Pirart 1998:542; Linguistic aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, section 3.5. (Pre-IE substratum in Indo-Aryan: language X), Dr. Koenraad ELST, 'see link': http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/keaitlin1.html; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 66-70, Dr H. W. Bailey etc.
35. See: Alam-shahir, p 18; Kamboj Itihaas, 1971, H. S. Thind.
36. J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans & edited Dr R. C. Majumdar, 1927, p 275, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
37. Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
38. op cit., 1927, p 268, 278, Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr R. C. Majumdar
39. op cit., 1927, p 284, McCrindle, Majumdar
40. H. C. Seth, P. C. Baghchi, Buddha Prakash, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S Kirpal Singh
41. Raghuvamsa 4.68-71.
42. Rajatarangini 4.163-165
43. See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 91-92, S Kirpal Singh ; On Kamboja-Kumuda and Komdei connection, see detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 48-49, 155, 299-300, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
44. India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S. Kirpal Singh.
45. See: The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 59, 92, 159, S Kipral Singh
46. 'Lohan. ParamaKambojan.Rishikan'uttaranpi
47. Ancient Kamboja, in Iran and Islam, 1971, p 65, H. W. Bailey
48.
:Kaambhoja.yavaneshen Vabhore.n vipatitah |
:tadaiva hastinapuryamebhrahemo nripeshavra || 223 ||
: (Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatarangini Sangraha: p 110).
49. Dr Michael Witzel asserts that name Kamboja has also been transmitted as Ambautai by Ptolemy without the typical prefix K. Ptolemy (Geography 6.18.3) reports a section of people called Ambautai who were located on southern side of Paropamisus (Hindukush) towards Kabol valley. Dr Michael and some other scholars asserts that Ambaurai = (K)ambautai = Kamboja. It is also asserted that –tai in Ambautai is a Scythian suffix (Italo Ronca, Ostiran und Zentralasien bei Ptolemeios, Diss. Mainz 1968., p 121; cf also Bulitai]”; Hydronomy of Nepal, Dr Michael Witzel, p 40, fn 98.). The Ambautai here apparently refers to the cis- Hindukush branch of Kambojas if the interpretation of Dr Michael is to be believed. And Geography implies they were Scythians people. Thus the Kambojas lying on the southern side of Hindukush were also included in the Scythian category of Classical writers.
50. 'See link' http://www.nectec.or.th/thai-yunnan/20.html#r49, Serge quotes the following references: Foucher, La vieille route de l'Inde, p. 271; Also - Rock Edict 13, 30 (See Bloch). Some one knowing French language needs to check these references quoted by Serge.
Books and Articles
★ Bailey, H. W. 1958. "Languages of the Saka." ''Handbuch der Orientalistik'', I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958.
★ Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. 2002. ''Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines''. Warner Books, New York. 1st Trade printing, 2003. ISBN 0-446-67983-6 (pbk).
★ ''Bulletin of the Asia Institute: The Archaeology and Art of Central Asia''. Studies From the Former Soviet Union. New Series. Edited by B. A. Litvinskii and Carol Altman Bromberg. Translation directed by Mary Fleming Zirin. Vol. 8, (1994), pp. 37-46.
★ Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.
[1]
★ Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation.
[2]
★ Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). ''Les Saces: Les <
> d'Asie, VIIIe av. J.-C.-IVe siècle apr. J.-C.'' Editions Errance, Paris. ISBN 2-87772-337-2 (in French).
★ Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1970. "The Wu-sun and Sakas and the Yüeh-chih Migration." ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 33'' (1970), pp. 154-160.
★ Puri, B. N. 1994. "The Sakas and Indo-Parthians." In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 191-207.
★ Thomas, F. W. 1906. "Sakastana." ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'' (1906), pp. 181-216.
★ Yu, Taishan. 1998. ''A Study of Saka History''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 80. July, 1998. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania.
★ Yu, Taishan. 2000. ''A Hypothesis about the Source of the Sai Tribes''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 106. September, 2000. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania.
External links
★ Scythians/Sacae: Article by Jona Lendering
★ Article by Kivisild et al on genetic heritage of early Indian settlers
★ Sacaes/Scythians/Chionits
★ genetic heritage of central Asia
★ genetic journeys and ancestors
★ Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors
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