Peoples of the Iberian peninsula just before the Roman process of conquest
The 'Conquest of Hispania' was a historical period that began with the
Roman landing at
Empúries in 218 B.C. and ended with the conclusion of the Roman conquest of the
Iberian Peninsula (or
Hispania) by
Caesar Augustus in 17 B.C., including all of the events that occurred in the period.
Introduction
Even before the
First Punic War between the
8th and
7th centuries BC the
Phoenicians (and later the
Carthaginians) had already appeared in the southern part of the
Iberian Peninsula as well as in the East, to the south of the
Ebro. Their numerous commercial settlements based throughout these coastal strips provided an outlet into Mediterranean commerce for minerals and other resources of pre-Roman Iberia. These installations consisting of little more than warehouses and wharves allowed not only
exports, but also the introduction to the Peninsula of products manufactured in the Eastern Mediterranean. This had the indirect effect of the native peninsular cultures adopting certain Eastern characteristics.
Furthermore, during the 7th century BC, the
Greeks established their first colonies on the northern Mediterranean coast of the peninsula. Setting off from Massalia (
Marseille) they founded the cities of Emporion (
Ampurias) and Rhode (
Roses), although at the time they had already spread throughout the coastal commercial centers of the region without establishing a permanent presence. Part of this Greek commerce was nevertheless carried out by Phoenician shipping; Phoenician trade in the peninsula included articles both coming from and heading to Greece.
As a commercial power of the Western Mediterranean, Carthage expanded its interests to the island of
Sicily and the south of
Italy. This growing influence over the region soon proved to be an annoyance for Rome. This conflict of commercial interests ultimately led to the
Punic Wars of which the
First Punic War ended in an unstable armistice. The mutual hostility led to the
Second Punic War, which, after twelve years of conflict, resulted in effective Roman domination of the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula. Later, a decisive defeat for Carthage at
Zama would wipe that city from the historical scene.
Despite having vanquished their rival Mediterranean power, the Romans still took another two centuries to bring the entire Iberian Peninsula under their control through an expansionist policy that earned the enmity of practically all of the tribes of the interior. The abuses to which these people were submitted is considered to be responsible for the strong anti-Roman sentiment throughout these nations. After years of bloody conflict, the indigenous people of Hispania were finally crushed by the military and cultural heel of Rome, thus disappearing from the face of history.
Carthaginian Iberia
After the
First Punic War, the
Carthaginian family descending from
Hamilcar Barca began the effective subjugation of Hispania which would extend over the greater part of the south and the west of the peninsula. This subjugation was achieved through tributes, alliances, marriages or simply by force. The peninsula would go on to supply Carthage with a significant number of troops — both mercenaries and draftees — that assisted in its confrontations with
Ancient Rome as well as its reaffirmation of dominance over
Northern Africa. The Romans considered this sufficient motive to invade Hispania. The Ilergetes (from Northeast Hispania) and the legendary Baleric
Slingers particularly stood out amongst these troops coming from diverse tribes of the region.
The Sagunt Matter
The
Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome was ignited by the dispute over the hegemony of
Sagunt, a hellenized coastal city and Roman ally. After great tension within the city government culminating in the assassination of the supporters of Carthage,
Hannibal laid siege to the city of Sagunt in
218 BC. The city called for Roman aid, but the pleas fell on deaf ears. Following a prolonged siege and a bloody struggle in which Hannibal himself was wounded and the army practically destroyed, the Carthaginians finally took control of the city. Many of the Saguntians chose to commit suicide rather than face the subjugation and slavery that awaited them at the hands of the Carthaginians.
The war later continued with Hannibal's expedition to Italia. The damage wrought throughout the
Italian Peninsula by this expedition provoked the Romans to invade the Iberian Peninsula in an attempt to cut off Hannibal's supplies coming from Hispania and Carthage.
The Roman invasion
Rome sent troops under the command of
Gnaeus and
Publius Cornelius Scipio. Gnaeus was the first to arrive in Hispania while his brother Publius turned towards Massalia with the goal of obtaining support and trying to halt the Carthaginian advance. Emporion, or
Empúries, was the point where Rome began on the peninsula. Their first mission was to find allies among the
Iberians. They signed treaties of alliance with Iberian tribal leaders on the coast but probably did not obtain support for their cause among the majority. One known example was the tribe of the
Ilergetes, one of the most important north of the Ebro, who were allied with the Carthaginians. Gnaeus Scipio subjugated these tribes, either by treaty or through the forces of the coast north of the Ebro, including the city of
Tarraco, where Gnaeus made his residence.
The war between Carthage and Rome
The first important conflict between the Carthaginians and the Romans took place in
Cissa in
218 BCE, probably near Tarraco, although it has been tried to identify it as
Guissona in the present-day province of
Lleida. The Carthaginians, commanded by
Hannonn were defeated by Roman forces commanded by
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus. The leader of the Ilergetes
Indíbil, who fought with the Carthaginians, was captured. But when Gnaeus' victory was certain,
Hasdrubal Barca arrived with reinforcements and dispersed the Romans but did not defeat them. The Carthaginian forces returned to their capital of
Cartago Nova (now
Cartagena) and the Romans to their primary base at Tarraco.
In
217 BCE, Gnaeus' fleet vanquished Hasdrubal Barca's on the mouth of the Ebro. Shortly afterward, reinforcements arrived from Italy under the command of Publius Scipio and the Romans were able to advance on
Saguntum.
Gnaeus and Publius Scipio are attributed with the fortification of Tarraco and the establishment of a military port. The city wall was probably constructed over the front of an ancient wall; the marks of the Iberian stonemason can be appreciated, since the wall was constructed by hand.
In
216 BCE Gnaeus and Publius Scipio fought the Iberians, probably against tribes south of the Ebro. The Iberian attacks were repelled.
In
215 BCE the Carthaginians received reinforcements under the command of
Himilco and fought again on the mouth of the Ebro, apparently near
Amposta or
Sant Carles de la Ràpita in the so-called
Battle of Ebro River. The Roman fleet was victorious.
The rebellion of
Syphax in
Numidia required Hasdrubal to return to Africa with his best troops (
214 BCE), leaving his camp in Hispania to the Romans. In Africa, Hasdrubal secured the assistance of another Numidian king,
Gala, lord of the region of
Constantine. With the help of Gala and his son
Masinissa, Hasdrubal defeated Syphax.
In
211 BCE, Hasdrubal Barca returned to Iberia accompanied by Masinissa and his Numidian warriors.
Perhaps between
214 BCE and
211 BCE, Gnaeus and his brother
Publius Cornelius Scipio overran the Ebro. We know for certain that in 211 BCE the Scipio brothers counted among their army a strong contingent of
Celtiberian mercenaries, composed of some thousands of combatants. The Celtiberians frequently acted as soldiers of fortune.
The Carthaginian forces were structured into 3 armies, commanded respectively by Hasdrubal Barca,
Mago Barca, and
Hasdrubal Gisco, the last son of the Carthaginian commander
Hannibal Gisco, killed in the
First Punic War. For their part, the Romans organized themselves into another three groups, commanded by Gnaeus and Publius Scipio, and also by
Titus Fonteius.
Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca, supported by the Numidian
Masinissa, vanquished Publius Scipio and killed him. Gnaeus Scipio had to retreat to the desert with his Celtiberian mercenaries to whom Hasdrubal offered a sum greater than that paid by Rome. Gnaeus died during the withdrawal and the Carthaginians were at the point of crossing the Ebro River when an official named
Gaius Marcius Septimus, elected general by the troops, repelled them. The circumstance of this battle is uncertain but we know that
Indibil fought again against the Carthaginians. The battle took place in
211 BC.
In
210 BC an expedition under
Gaius Claudius Nero was able to capture Hasrubal Barca but he went back on his word and retreated dishonorably.
The Roman Senate decided to send a new army to the Ebro to prevent the Carthaginian army from crossing into Italy. Leadership of this force was given to
Publius Scipio, the son of the general of the same name who had died in combat in
211 BC.
Publius Scipio (the younger) arrived in Hispania accompanied by
Marcus Silanus (who would succeed Claudius Nero) and his advisor
Caius Lelius, chief of the group.
Upon his arrival the three Carthaginian armies found themselves in this situation: Hasdrubal Barca's army was in the area around the origin of the
Tajo; the army of Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, was situated in
Lusitania near modern
Lisboa; and Mago's army was in the area near the
Strait of Gibraltar.
Publius Scipio in an audacious move, left the camp on the Ebro, and attacked
Carthago Nova by land and sea. The Punic peninsular capital was given an insufficient defense force under the command of a new leader who was also called
Mago, had to surrender, and the city was occupied by the Romans. Publius Scipio returned to Tarraco before Hasdrubal could move out of his camp on the Ebro.
After this daring operation, a large part of
Hispania Ulterior was subdued by Rome. Publius Scipio attracted various Iberian chiefs until then allied with the Carthaginians, such as
Edeco (an enemy of Carthage since his wife and children were taken as slaves), Indibil (for the same reason), and
Mandonius (who had been attacked by Hasdrubal Barca).
In the winter of
209 and
208 BC Publius Scipio advanced south and collided with the army of Hasdrubal Barca (who at the time was advancing north) near
Santo Tomé in the hamlet of
Baecula where the
Battle of Baecula took place. Publius Scipio is said to have won (which is doubtful), but if that was the case, he did not prevent Hasdrubal Barca from advancing to the north with most of his troops. In his northern advance, Hasdrubal arrived at the passes of the western Pyrenees.
So it is known that Hasdrubal crossed the Pyrenees through the country of the
Basques. He probably tried to make an alliance with them, and in this case, the Basques lacked the means to oppose the Carthaginian advance. Hasdrubal camped in the south of the
Galias and later passed into Italy (
209 BC).
In
208 BC Mago Barca retreated with his forces to the
Balearic Islands and Hasdrubal Gisco supported him in
Lusitania.
In
207 BC the reorganized Carthagians and their reinforcements left Africa under
Hannon's leadership managing to recover most of the south of the peninsula. After Hannon subdued this region, Mago returned with his forces and met with Hasdrubal Gisco. But soon after Hannon and Mago were defeated by the Romans led by Marcus Silanus. Hannon was captured, and Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago had to fortify their armies at the most important places.
Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca received new reinforcements from Africa in (
206 BC), and for their part recruited an army of natives. They gave battle to the Romans at
Ilipa (modern
Alcalá del Río in
Sevilla province), but on this occasion Publius Scipio Africanus clearly obtained victory. Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco took refuge in
Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. He could cross to Africa and meet the Numidian king Syphax who had visited him in Hispania.
Publius Scipio fell ill, which was taken advantage of by the army as an opportunity to demand higher wages. This in turn was taken advantage of by the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes who rebelled under the leadership of the chiefs
Indibil and
Mandonius (of the
Ausetani). This rebellion was essentially against
proconsuls
L. Lentulus and
L. Manlius. Publius Scipio appeased the mutineers and put down a final bloody revolt by the Iberians. Mandonius was caught and executed (
205 BC); Indibil managed to escape.
Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco abandoned Gades with all of their ships and their troops to support Hannibal in Italy, and after the departure of these forces, Rome held the entire south of Hispania. Rome now ruled from the Pyrenees to
Algarve along the coast. Roman dominance reached
Huesca and from there, the Ebro to the south and the sea to the east.
The wars of conquest
From 197 B.C. onward, the part of the Iberian Peninsula that fell under Roman control was divided into two provinces:
Hispania Citerior to the north (the future
Hispania Tarraconensis with Tarraco as its capital) and
Hispania Ulterior to the south with capital
Córdoba. The two provinces were governed by two biannual
proconsuls.
In the same year of 197, the Citerior province was the scene of a rebellion by the Iberian and Ilergete communities. The Proconsul
Quinto Minucio had considerable difficulty controlling those rebellions. The Ulterior province escaped Roman control when its governor died as the local ''
turdetano'' people were rebelling. In 195 B.C., Rome was forced to send the consul
Marcus Cato. He arrived in Hispania to find the Citerior province in full rebellion with Roman forces controlling only a few fortified cities. Cato quelled the rebellion in summer of the same year and reestablished control over the province, but he failed to endear himself to the natives or Celtiberians who acted as paid
mercenaries for the ''turdetanos''. After making a show of force by passing the Roman legions through Celtiberian territory, Cato convinced them to return to their homes. However, the natives' submission proved superficial because when rumors spread that Cato would soon depart for Italy, the rebellion reignited. Cato acted decisively once again, conquering the rebels and selling the instigators off into
slavery. The native population was totally disarmed. Cato returned to Rome with great fanfare from the
Roman Senate. He brought with him an enormous war chest of over 11,000
kilos of
silver, 600 kg of
gold, 123,000
denarii, and 540,000 silver coins, all of which was taken from the Hispanic peoples in the course of his military actions. He fulfilled his promise to Rome before beginning the campaign that "the war will pay for itself."
A later proconsul of Hispania,
Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, would fight other rebellions as well.
The next major Roman step was the conquest of
Lusitania with two crushing victories: one in 189 B.C. won by proconsul
Lucius Aemilius Paulus, and a more dubious one by the pretor/proconsul
Caius Calpurnius in 185.
The central region of the peninsula, called
Celtiberia, was officially conquered in 181 B.C. by
Quintus Fabius Flaccus. He bested the local
Celtiberian people and claimed control of several territories. But the real work was done by
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus from 179 to 178 when he conquered thirty
cities and
villages. He took some by sheer force and others by exploiting rivalries between the Celtiberians and the
Vascones to the north. His
alliances with the Vascons would facilitate the Roman domination of Celtiberia.
By this time, some of the Basque cities and villages may have already been subject to Rome, but at any rate a significant number of Basque holdings came into the
Roman Empire voluntarily through alliance. Tiberius Sempronius Graccus founded a new city named
Gracurris on top of the existing city of
Ilurcís (probably the modern-day
Alfaro in
La Rioja or
Corella in
Navarre). It was built of standard Roman construction and it appears to have housed several disorganized Celtiberian groups. The city would have been founded in roughly 179 B.C. according to references in later writings. The foundation of this city marks the end of the Celtiberian civilization and the consolidation of Roman influence in the ara.
Graccuris would prove to be situated in the middle of a region that would be hotly contested between the Celtiberians and Vascons. The area roughly corresponds to the modern
Ebro River Valley. Tiberius Sempronius Graccus was probably responsible for the majority of the treaties signed with the two groups. The treaties generally established a tribute from the surrounding cities to be paid in
silver or other products of the earth. Each city had to supply a predetermined amount of men for the army, and only a select few cities had the right to issue
currency.
Yet the inhabitants of cities subdued by force were almost never tribute-paying subjects: when they offered resistance to the Romans and were defeated, they were sold as slaves. Those who surrendered before an outright conquest were recognized as citizens of their respective cities were denied
Roman citizenship.
When cities subjugated themselves freely, the inhabitants became citizens, and the cities retained their municipal autonomy and at times, were exempt from taxes.
The
proconsuls (also called ''pretores'' or ''propretores''), that is, the provincial governors, adopted the custom of making themselves rich at their subjects' expense. Forced gifts and abuses were the norm. During their excursions, the proconsul and other functionaries were to be housed for free; at times they would confiscate a home. The proconsul would impose low prices on provisions of grain, for their own needs and those of the functionaries and their families, and at times also for their soldiers.
The resulting complaints became so strong that the
Roman Senate, after hearing from an embassy of provincial Hispanics, released in
171 BC some laws of control:
Tributes could not be collected by means of the military; cereal payments were permissible but proconsuls could not gather more than a fifth of the harvest; the proconsul was prohibited to fix the prices of grains on his own; petitions in support of popular holidays in Rome were limited; and the contribution of contingents for the army was maintained. However, like the judgement of the proconsuls that had committed abuses corresponding to the Senate through the proconsul of the city, it was rare that a proconsul was judged.
Viriathus and the Lusitanian Rebellion
Lusitania was probably the area of the peninsula that resisted the Roman invasion for the longest time. Until the year
155 BC, the
Lusitanian chief
Punicus made raids into the part of Lusitania controlled by Rome, ending with the twenty-year peace made by the former praetor
Sempronius Gracchus. Punicus obtained an important victory against the praetors
Manilius and
Calpurnius, inflicting 6,000 casualties.
After the death of Punicus,
Caisaros took charge of the fight against Rome, vanquishing the Roman troops again in
153 BC, revealing his banner in the battle, which triumphantly showed to the rest of the Iberian peoples how to display the vulnerability of Rome. At the time, the
Vetones and
Celtiberians had united in resistance, leaving the situation for Rome in this area of Hispania somewhat precarious. Lusitanians, Vetones and Celtiberians raided the Mediterranean coasts, while in order to secure their position on the Peninsula, they were deployed to North
Africa. It was in this year that two new consuls arrived in Hispania,
Quintus Fulvius Nobilior and
Lucius Mummius. The urgency of restoring dominion over Hispania made the two consuls enter into battle within two and a half months. The Lusitanians sent to Africa were defeated at Okile (modern
Arcila in
Morocco) by Mummius, who forced them to accept a peace treaty. For his part, the consul
Serbius Sulpicius Galba had conquered the Lusitanians in the peninsula, many of whom were murdered.
Nobilior was replaced in the following year (
152 BC) by
Marcus Claudius Marcellus who had already been proconsul in
168 BC. He in turn was succeeded in
150 BC by
Lucius Luculus who was distinguished by his cruelty and infamy.
In
147 BC a new Lusitanian leader named
Viriathus rebelled against the Roman forces. He had fled from Serbius Sulpicius Galba three years earlier, and, reuniting the Lusitanian tribes again, Viriathus began a
guerrilla war that fiercely struck the enemy without giving open battle. He commanded many campaigns and arrived with his troops at the
Murcian coasts. His numerous victories and the humiliation he inflicted upon the Romans made him worthy of the permanent place he holds in
Portuguese and
Spanish memory as a revered hero who fought without respite. Viriathus was assassinated about
139 BC by his own officers, Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus, probably paid off by the Roman General
Marcus Popillius Lenas. With his death, the final organized Lusitanian resistance disappeared, and Rome continued to expand into the region.
The war against the Celtiberian peoples
Between
135 and
132 BC,
Consul Decimus Junius Brutus brought about an expedition to
Gallaecia (north of
Portugal and
Galicia). Almost simultaneously (
133 BC) the Celtiberian city
Numancia, the last bastion of the Celtiberians, was destroyed. This was the culminating point of the war between the Celtiberians and the Romans between
143 BC and
133 BC; the Celtiberian city had been taken by
Publius Cornelius Scipio Æmilianus, when the opportunity was too much to resist. The Celtiberian chiefs committed suicide with their families and the rest of the population was sold into slavery. The city was razed.
For more than a century the
Vascones and Celtiberians fought over the rich land of the
Ebro River Valley. The Celtiberian
Calagurris, today
Calahorra, probably carried the weight of the struggle, helped by tribal alliances; the Vascones likely had a fairly important settlement situated on the other side of the Ebro, in an area across from Calagurris, which also gained the support of Vascones from other places. The Celtiberians surely shouldered most of the load in the conflict destroying the Vascone city and occupying lands on the other side of the Ebro.
But the so-called "Celtiberians" were enemies of Rome, and the Basques were Rome's allies (which was reasonable for strategic reasons). When Calagurris was destroyed by the Romans it was repopulated with Basques. It was probably the first Basque city on the other side of the river, destroyed before by the Celtiberians (who had occupied their lands north of the Ebro), and by other Basques.
In
123 BC the Romans occupied the
Balearic Islands, establishing a settlement there of three thousand Latin-speaking Hispanics. The fact that they were able to do this gives an impression of the profound cultural influence Rome projected on the Peninsula in just a century.
The civil wars
Hispania was party to the political and military disputes of the Roman Republic's final years when
Quintus Sertorius clashed with the aristrocatic party headed by
Sila in
83 BC. Upon losing in Italy, Quintus took refuge in Hispania continuing the war against the Roman government and establishing a complete government system in Huesca. Finally it was
Pompey who, after several raid attempts in Hispania, finished with Quintus Sertorius more by using political intrigue than military force. Subsequently it was peninsular support for Pompey that caused a new war in Hispania between his followers and the followers of
Julius Caesar. This war ended in
49 BC with Julius Caesar's victory.
Julius Caesar and the war against Pompey
Julius Caesar invaded Hispania as part of his war against
Pompey for control of Rome. Pompey fled to Greece and Caesar aimed to eliminate his base of support in the west and isolate him from the rest of the Empire. His forces clashed with those of Pompey's supporters at the
Battle of Ilerda (
Lerida) achieving a victory that opened the ports of the Peninsula. Finally, Pompey's forces were defeated at the
Munda in
45 BC. One year later, Caesar was assassinated at the doors of the
Roman Senate and his great-nephew
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later named Augustus, was named consul after a brief war against
Mark Antony, and later gained power that finally transformed the crumbling Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
Cantabrian Wars
:''Main article:
Cantabrian Wars''
During the reign of Caesar Augustus, Rome was obliged to maintain a bloody conflict against the Cantabrian tribes, a warlike people who presented fierce resistance to Roman domination. The Emperor himself moved to Segisama, modern
Sasamon, (
Burgos), to supervise the campaign personally. Rome adopted a cruel policy of extermination that supported actual extermination of the culture. With the end of this war, the long years of civil wars and wars of conquest ended in the territories of the Iberian Peninsula, beginning a long era of political and economic stability in Hispania.
References
Bibliography
;Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library:
★
Los Celtíberos - Alberto J. Lorrio (
Universidad de Alicante)
★
Las relaciones entre Hispania y el norte de África durante el gobierno bárquida y la conquista romana (237-19 a. J.C.) -
José María Blázquez Martínez
★
El impacto de la conquista de Hispania en Roma (154-83 a.C.) - José María Blázquez Martínez
★
Veinticinco años de estudios sobre la ciudad hispano-romana - Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (
Universidad de Alicante)
★
Segobriga y la religión en la Meseta sur durante el Principado - Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (
Universidad de Alicante)
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Notas a la contribución de la Península Ibérica al erario de la República romana - José María Blázquez Martínez
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Prácticas ilegítimas contra las propiedades rústicas en época romana (II): "Immitere in alienum, furtum, damnum iniuria datum" - M.ª Carmen Santapau Pastor
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La exportación del aceite hispano en el Imperio romano: estado de la cuestión - José María Blázquez Martínez
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Administración de las minas en época romana. Su evolución - José María Blázquez Martínez
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Revista Lucentum, XIX-XX, 2000-2001 (formato PDF) - 'Las magistraturas locales en las ciudades romanas del área septentrional del Conventus Carthaginensis', por Julián Hurtado Aguña - ISSN 0213-2338
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Almería)
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External links
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★
Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: La Hispania prerromana
★
Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: Hispania Romana
;Recursos universitarios:
★
Universidad de Zaragoza: Historia antigua - Hispania
★
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★
Departament de Prehistòria, Història Antiga i Arqueologia - Facultat de Geografia i Història, Universitat de Barcelona - 'Centro para el estudio de la interdependencia provincial en la antigüedad clásica (CEIPAC)'
★
Exposición «El monte de las ánforas» - Una exposición en profundidad sobre el monte Testaccio y su importancia en la comprensión de la economía romana.
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Universitat de les Illes Balears (pdf) - Documento con bibliografía relacionada
;Other links:
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Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
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Celtiberia.net: Mercenarios hispanos durante la Segunda Guerra Púnica
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En Hispania: Página de D. José Miguel Corbí, catedrático de Latín
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Simulacra Romae - Las capitales provinciales romanas
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Identificación de puentes romanos en Hispania
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Los ingenieros romanos
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La construcción de los puentes romanos
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Coordinadora para la defensa del Molinete - BAÑOS PÚBLICOS ROMANOS
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Zona arqueológica de Cercadilla (Córdoba)
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Augusta Emerita
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Bibliografía sobre la arquitectura de los teatros de Hispania
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Obras hidráulicas romanas en Hispania
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Minas del Aramo. Principado de Asturias
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El garum, la salsa del Imperio Romano
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Las provincias de la Hispania Romana
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Grupo Gastronómico Gaditano - ''El «Garum Gaditanum»''
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TRAIANVS - ''Las explotaciones mineras de Lapis Specularis en Hispania''
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Tesorillo.com - ''Algunas cecas provinciales romanas''
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Tesorillo.com - ''Algunas cecas imperiales romanas'
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Acropoliscórdoba.org - 'El alma de la pintura en Roma'
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ArteEspaña.com - 'Escultura romana: el retrato'
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