'Religious persecution' is systematic mistreatment of an individual or group due to their
religious affiliation.
In a
secular state, claims of religious persecution are effectively a demand of the fulfilment of
Freedom of religion and
Religious pluralism. In a non-secular state, they are laments about the intolerance of the
state religion and the demand for
Religious toleration or
disestablishment.
Often it is the alleged
persecution of individuals within a group in the attempt to maintain their religion identity, or the exercise of power by an individual or organization that causes members of a religious group to suffer. Persecution in this case may refer to unwarranted arrest, false imprisonment, beatings, torture, unjustified execution, denial of benefits, and denial of civil rights and liberties and especially other acts of violence, such as
war,
torture, and
ethnic cleansing.It also may refer to the confiscation or destruction of property, or incitement to hate among other things.
Not only theorists of
secularization (who presume a decline of
religiosity in general) would willingly assume that religious persecution is a thing of the past. However, with the rise of
fundamentalism and
religiously related terrorism this assumption has become even more controversial. Indeed, in many countries of the world today, religious persecution is a
human rights problem.
Reasons for religious persecution
The descriptive use of the term Religious persecution, applied to different periods in history, is rather difficult. For the obvious reason of the overabundance of material, contemporary historians generally avoid to write books on the whole of human history.
In a
western context our now common rejection of religious persecution originated in 17th century England. Therefore it seems appropriate to focus on that period, if one wants to know why religious persecution has happened.
The most ambitious chronicle of that time is
W.K.Jordans ''
magnum opus'' ''The Development of Religious Toleration in England, 1558-1660'' (four volumes, published 1932-1940). Jordan wrote as the thread of
fascism rose in Europe, and this work is seen as a defence of the fragile
values of
humanism and
tolerance.
[1]
From the
1640s onwards a vigorous debate about religious persecution took place in England. ''"The debate over persecution and toleration was a debate about what the civil magistrate ought to do about dissent."''
[2] Persecution meant that the state was committed to secure
religious uniformity by coercive measures. There actually is a statement by
Roger L'Estrange: ''"That which you call persecution, I translate Uniformity".''
[3]
The following reasons for which religious persecution has happened are taken from a recent important study on the field.
Civil and ecclesiastical intolerance
Main articles: Religious intolerance
Ecclesiastical tolerance concerned the degree of diversity tolerated within a particular church.
[4] In a
secular state, ecclesiastical intolerance generally does not lead to religious persecution, since in a secular state a church usually does not have the power to enforce its beliefs (
dogmas) on its members. Of course, in modern
civil law any member of an organisation has the ''right to quit''. However,
secularization, understood as the
separation of church and state, is a modern phenomenon. Before this process, people could hold a view similar to that of the Anglican theologian
Richard Hooker: ''"there is not any man of the Church of England but the same man is also a member of the commonwealth; nor any man a member of the commonwealth, which is not also of the Church of England."''
[5] Thus Christian theologians like
Joseph Hall could reason from the ecclesiastical intolerance of the early Christian church in the
New Testament to the civil intolerance of the Christian state.
[6]
Persecution for heresy and blasphemy
Main articles: Heresy Main articles: Blasphemy
In Protestant England six people were executed for heresy or blasphemy during the reign of
Elizabeth I of England, and two more in
1612 under
James I of England.
[7]
See also:
Christian heresy,
Heresy in Orthodox Judaism
Persecution for political reasons
More than 300 Roman Catholics were put to death by English governments between
1535 and
1681 for treason, thus for secular than religious offences.
[7] In
1570,
Pope Pius V had issued the bull
Regnans in Excelsis, which absolved Catholics from their obligations to the government.
[9] This dramatically worsened the situation of the Catholics in England. English governments continued to fear
Popish Plot;
Historical persecution
Out of
Egypt came monotheistic
Judaism under
Moses, its prophet. Among the
Ten Commandments of the new religion was one that forbade the worship of any other god than its one true God. When
Imperial Rome extended its reach to their area, various conflicts arose.
Out of
Judaism came
Christianity, which because it was strictly monotheistic and also encouraged conversion was a much more powerful threat to the established pantheistic order than had been Judaism. The Jewish exemption from the requirement to participate in public cults was lifted and the anti-monotheistic religious persecution of the Christians began under
Nero.
By the eighth century Christianity had attained a clear ascendancy in Europe and neighboring regions and a period of consolidation began marked by the pursuit of heretics and various other forms of monotheistic religious persecution. Christian monotheistic religious persecution perhaps reached its apex with the
Inquisition.
Meanwhile south and east of the Christian empires yet another monotheist religion had arisen:
Islam. Generally following the Jewish tradition of tolerance towards non-believers provided they maintained the outward habits of believers, Muslims spread across northern
Africa, the
Middle East, northern
India, and adjoining regions. Those who actively oppose Islam or try to persuade people in their community not to convert to Islam may face persecution or death threats (which may even be carried out). At times, attempts at peaceful persuasion against Islam have led to persecution.
:''See also:
Historical persecution by Christians,
Persecution of Ancient Greek religion''
Present Period
Since the 18th century there have been many occasions where religious persecution has occurred.
Bahá'ís in Iran
Main articles: Persecution of Bahá'ís
Bahá'ís and various third party entities such as the
United Nations,
Amnesty International, the
European Union, the
United States and peer-reviewed academic literature have stated that the members of the Bahá'í community in Iran, the nation of origin of the
Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority and the location of one of the largest Bahá'í populations in the world, have been subjected to unwarranted arrests, false imprisonment, beatings, torture, unjustified executions, confiscation and destruction of property owned by individuals and the Bahá'í community, denial of employment, denial of government benefits, denial of civil rights and liberties, and denial of access to higher education.
More recently, in the later months of 2005, an intensive anti-Bahá'í campaign was conducted by Iranian newspapers and radio stations. The state-run and influential
Kayhan newspaper, whose
managing editor is appointed by Iran's supreme leader,
Ayatollah Khamenei [1], ran nearly three dozen articles defaming the Bahá'í Faith. The articles, which make use of fake historical documents, engage in a distortion of history to falsely describe Bahá'í moral principles in a manner that would be offensive to Muslims, thus inducing feelings of suspicion, distrust and hatred to members of the Bahá'í community in Iran.
[2].
Furthermore, a confidential letter sent on
October 29 2005 by the Chairman of the Command Headquarters of the Armed Forced in Iran states that the Supereme Leader of Iran,
Ayatollah Khamenei has instructed the Command Headquarters to identify people who adhere to the Bahá'í Faith and to monitor their activiters and gather any and all information about the members of the Bahá'í Faith. The letter was brought to the attention of the international community by Asma Jahangir, the
Special Rapporteur of the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights on freedom of religion or belief, in a
March 20,
2006 press release
[3].
In the press release the Special Rapporteur states that she "is highly concerned by information she has received concerning the treatment of members of the Bahá'í community in Iran." She further states that "The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating."
[4].
Judaism
Main articles: anti-Semitism
The most infamous case of
anti-Semitism in the 20th century was
the Holocaust, a systematic
mass murder of millions of European Jews by the
Nazis.
Christianity
It is estimated that over 1.5 million Christians have been killed by the
Janjaweed, the Arab Muslim militia, and even suspected Islamists in northern Sudan since 1984.
United States and Islam
Some people believe that both the
United States and
Al-Qaeda are involved in religious persecution. The
September 11, 2001 attacks on the
United States have been suspected by religious figures of happening because of America's relative secularity; though, it should be noted that Al Qaida never once in their public statements used that as a justification for 9/11 or any other attack. The reasons Al Qaida give for their attacks are the presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia, the location of Islam's holy sites, which they consider sacrilege, the occupation of Muslim territory, and American financial support of
Israel.
Christian churches have been bombed in
Pakistan and there have been attempted attacks on
churches elsewhere.
Tunisia,
Saudi Arabia,
Istanbul in
Turkey etc have been attacked, mainly because these governments are seen by the extremists to be collaborating with foreign non-Islamic powers.
On the other hand, shortly after
September 11 there was a sharp increase of
Islamophobia in the United States and the United Kingdom, where Muslims are sometimes attacked in public or even killed
[5]. The 21st century "
War on terror" was at one point referred to as a "crusade" until the Muslim understanding of the term was pointed out, and abuses by American soldiers during the
invasion of Iraq in 2003 (e.g. the
Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse) made some Muslims felt that they were being persecuted, therefore giving rise to
anti-American feelings, coordinated attacks by
extremist Islamic groups and
insurgency in the Middle East.
United States and Mormonism
Main articles: anti-Mormon
Since the organization of
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as the
Mormons) in the early 19th century, it has experienced persecution. The small religious community was forcefully driven from state to state, and in Missouri the Mormons were massacred in their camps, under the extermination order signed by Governor Lilburn Boggs in 1838. Included in this order was the statement, "the Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the State if necessary." Some incidents that occurred under this order were the murder of at least eighteen Mormon men at
Haun's Mill, the dismemberment of an elderly Mormon man with a corn cutter, and the murder of 10-year-old Sardius Smith. The murderer of Sardius Smith later boasted, quote, "Nits will make lice, and if he had lived he would have become a Mormon."
After the Mormons were driven from Missouri, they regrouped in
Illinois where the founder
Joseph Smith, Jr., and his brother
Hyrum Smith were murdered in
Carthage Jail. The two men were being held in the prison under false charges for the express purpose of making them vulnerable to the Carthage Greys , a known anti-Mormon militant group, who were ordered by
Governor Ford to guard Joseph and his brother. Predictably, they stormed the jail, and Joseph and Hyrum lost in a gun battle. The Mormons were then driven from Illinois as well. They migrated to
Utah to escape the persecutions, and settled in the
Salt Lake Valley, under the leadership of
Brigham Young.
People's Republic of China
The government of
People's Republic of China in mainland
China has banned the spiritual group
Falun Gong and conducted massive crackdown of the group, including using torture and "re-education" camp to force the adherents to abandon Falun Gong. There are reports indicating that the PRC has engaged in
organ harvesting from live Falun Gong adherents, among other
human rights abuses.
United States and Native Americans
Religious persecution and
discrimination have been an official part of U.S. governmental policies and law regarding
Native Americans. For example, traditional
indigenous ceremonies such as the
Sun Dance and
Ghost Dance were officially outlawed in the late 1800s.
In modern times, charges of religious persecution by the U.S. government against Native Americans continue. These charges have largely centered on the
eagle feather law which governs the possession of
eagle feathers for religious use, the use of ceremonial
peyote, and the
repatriation of Native American human remains and cultrual and religious objects found in museums and
private collections.
The
eagle feather law, which governs the possession and religious use of eagle feathers, was officially written to protect then dwindling eagle populations while still protecting traditional Native American spiritual and religious customs, of which the use of eagles are central. The eagle feather law later met charges of promoting racial and religious discrimination due to the law’s provision authorizing the possession of eagle feathers to members of only one ethnic group, Native Americans, and forbidding Native Americans from including non-Native Americans in indigenous customs involving eagle feathers — a common modern practice dating back to the early 1500s.
Peyote, a spineless cactus found in the desert southwest and
Mexico, is a commonly used in certain traditions of Native American religion and spirituality, most notably in the
Native American Church. Prior to the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) in 1978, and as amended in 1994, the religious use of peyote was not afforded legal protection. This resulted in the arrest of many Native Americans and non-Native Americans participating in traditional indigenous religion and spirituality. Many individuals today encounter harassment and persecution by their employers for ingesting
peyote while participating in the Native American Church due to the cactus containing the psychotropic mescaline, a controlled substance.
Native Americans often hold strong personal and spiritual connections to their ancestors and often believe that their remains should rest undisturbed. This has often placed Native Americans at odds with archaeologists who have often dug on Native American burial grounds and other sites considered sacred, often removing artifacts and human remains – an act considered sacrilegious by many Native Americans. For years, Native American communities decried the removal of ancestral human remains and cultural and religious objects, charging such activities as acts of
genocide, religious persecution, and
discrimination. Many Native Americans called on the government, museums, and private collectors for the return of remains and sensitive objects for reburial. The
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), which gained passage in 1990, established a means for Native Americans to request the return or "repatriation" of human remains and other sensitive cultural, religious, and funery items held by federal agencies and federally assisted museums and institutions.
Quotes
★ "I have come from a country where people are hanged if they talk." —
Leonhard Euler
★ "Religious persecution has come about because others are too afraid to learn about something new..." —
Zachary Jensen
★ "No orthodox church ever had power that it did not endeavor to make people think its way by force and flame. And yet every church that ever was established commenced in the minority, and while it was in the minority advocated free speech -- every one.
John Calvin, the founder of the
Presbyterian Church, while he lived in France, wrote a book on religious toleration in order to show that all men had an equal right to think; and yet that man afterward, clothed in a little authority, forgot all his sentiments about religious liberty, and had
poor Serviettes burned at the stake, for differing with him on a question that neither of them knew anything about. In the minority, Calvin advocated toleration -- in the majority, he practiced murder." —
Robert Green Ingersoll.
[10]
Literature
★ John Coffey (2000), ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689'', Studies in modern History, Pearson Education
References
1. Coffey 2000, 2
2. Coffey 2000, 11
3. quoted after Coffey (2000), 27
4. John Coffey (2000), p. 12
5. ''The Works of Richard Hooker'', II, p. 485; quoted after: John Coffey (2000), p. 33
6. John Coffey (2000), p. 33
7. John Coffey (2000), p. 26
8. John Coffey (2000), p. 26
9. John Coffey (2000), p. 85
10. Trial of C.B. Reynolds for Blasphemy, Closing Argument by Robert G. Ingersoll, from ''The Works of Robert G. Ingersoll'', Vol XI., p. 55-117
See also
★
Antireligion
★
Human rights
★
Opposition to cults and new religious movements
★
Religious intolerance
★
Religious pluralism
★
Religion and violence
External links
★
United Nations - Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on freedom of religion or belief
★
United States Commission on International Religious Freedom
★ http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/5E72D6B7B624AABBC125713700572D09?opendocument
★ http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousintolerance/ About.com section on Religious Intolerance
★ http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/72238.pdf U.S. State Department 2006 Annual Report on International Religious Freedom
★ http://www.persecution.in - Complete update about Christian persecution in India
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