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'Religion in China' has varied widely since the beginning of Chinese history. Temples of many different religions dot China's landscape, including Heaven worship, Taoism, Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion. Mahayana Buddhism remains the largest organized religion in China since its introduction in the 1st century.
The study of religion in China is complicated by several factors. Because many Chinese belief systems have concepts of a sacred and sometimes spiritual world yet do not always invoke a concept of God, classifying a Chinese belief system as either a religion or a philosophy can be problematic. Although Taoism clearly developed a religious organization with priests, monks and temples, Confucianism remained chiefly an intellectual pursuit, with some influence from the Chinese Heaven worship practices (that included serving^[1] an omnipotent, just, monotheistic, and supreme being called Shangdi).
Moreover, the Chinese religions are family-oriented and do not demand the exclusive adherence of members, unlike many Western religions. Chinese people may visit Buddhist temples while living according to Taoist principles and participating in local ancestor veneration rituals.
Major forms of religion that developed within China include ancestor veneration, Chinese folk religion, shamanism, Taoism and the veneration of localized deities. Most Chinese have a conception of heaven and yin and yang. Many Chinese have also believed in such practices as astrology, Feng Shui, geomancy, and numerology.
Historically, the emperor was regarded as the Son of Heaven, and he typically led the imperial court in performing elaborate annual rituals. He was not believed to be a deity, but rather someone who mediated between the forces of heaven and earth. A central idea of the dynastic cycle was that an unjust imperial dynasty that had lapsed into corruption could lose the Mandate of Heaven and be overthrown by a rebellion.
Minority faiths introduced from abroad include Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

Contents

Heaven worship

Ancestor worship

Taoism

Buddhism

Islam

Christianity

Judaism

Recent sects

The People's Republic of China

References

Further reading

See also

External links

Heaven worship

Main articles: Heaven worship

The "official" orthodox faith system subscribed to by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty is a panentheism system, centering on the worship of "Heaven" as an omnipotent force. This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism or the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has features of a monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. "Heaven" as a supernatural force was variously referred to as ''Shang Di'' (literally Emperor Above) or ''Huang Tian Shang Di'' (Sagely Heaven, Emperor Above). Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Altar of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include the weather and natural disasters. No idols were permitted in heaven worship. Especially evil people were believed to be killed by Heaven through lightning, with their crimes inscribed on their (burnt) spines.
Although it gradually diminished in popular belief after the advent of Buddhism and Taoism, among others, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period. These concepts, often influenced heavily by Confucianist theory, include the Mandate of Heaven, the Emperor's role as Son of Heaven, and the legitimate overthrow of a dynasty when its "mandate" ended. As a result, the worship of Heaven remained the official cult or religion of Chinese empires. Emperors who favoured Taoism or Buddhism and neglected the worship of Heaven were oftentimes seen as anomalous. Elements were also incorporated into Chinese folk religion. Execution by lightning, for example, became one of the roles of the thunder gods. The concept of the almighty Heaven remained in popular expressions. Where an Anglophone would say "Oh my God" or "Thank God", a Chinese person might say "Oh Heaven" ("老天！" or "天哪！") or "Thank the heavens and the earth" ("謝天謝地").
Along with Heaven, other major elements of the traditional Chinese universe are also venerated. These include the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon.

Ancestor worship

Main articles: Ancestor worship

Chinese veneration of ancestors dates back to ancient times (10,000BC), predating Confucianism and Taoism. Traditional Chinese culture, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The veneration of ancestors can even extend to legendary figures or historical, such as the patriarch or founder of one's Chinese surname, virtuous individuals such as Confucius or Guan Yu, or the mythological figures like the Yellow Emperor, supposed as the ancestor of all Chinese people.
The two major festivals involving ancestor veneration are the Qingming Festival and the Double Ninth Festival, but veneration of ancestors is conducted in many other ceremonies, including wading, funerals, and triad initiations. Worshippers generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of spirit money. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.
Whether this act constitutes a form of veneration, or of worship, became part of the Chinese Rites controversy which brought up the debate over whether or not the practice conflicted with the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church.

Taoism

Main articles: Taoism

Taoism ("Tao Jiao", Religious Taoism) is an indigenous religion of China and is traditionally traced to the composition of the ''Tao Te Ching'' or to the founding of the Way of the Celestial Masters by Zhang Daoling, although some Taoist schools trace their origin much earlier. Taoist religion builds on earlier concepts found in classic wisdom texts such as the Book of Tao and Its Virtues or Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching). This work is attributed to the sage Lao Zi, a mythological person who subsequently came to be venerated by some as a god. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on 'the way', an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism (in its unorganized form) is also considered the folk religion of China.

Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism in China

Buddhism was introduced from South Asia and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and was very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, admired by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Buddhism today has grown quite popular as well as gaining support from the government. It is the largest organized faith in the country. Estimates of the number of Buddhists in China range widely, from 100 million to 607.4 million, or about 8 - 46.5% percent of the Chinese population, thus making China the country with the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. It should be noted that many Chinese identify themselves as Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.

Islam

Main articles: Islam in China

Islam was introduced into China via the Silk Road in the 7th century, other accounts state that some of Prophet Muhammad's companions arrived there at AD 650^[2] when the Tang Emperor Gaozong showed significant esteem for Islam and believed that its teachings are compatible with the values espoused by Confucius. Islam was later more substantially spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved. During the Yuan Dynasty, many Mosques and learning centers were constructed. Today, there are well over 30,000 Mosques around China.^[3] Several prominent Chinese historical figures are Muslims, such as 20th Century general Bai Chongxi and Ming Dynasty fleet admiral Zheng He.

Although data are difficult to obtain, it is now possibly the second or third largest organized faith in the country (depending on the statistics of the local Christian population, which claims to have 4-6% of China's population),^[4] practiced by an estimated 1.5% to 2.5% of Chinese, predominantly such minority groups as the Hui, the Uyghurs, and the Kazakhs. These make up large percentages in Ningxia and Xinjiang Autonomous Regions. According to government statistics that there are 20 million Muslims in China. In 2006, a record number of Chinese pilgrims departed to Mecca for the hajj, up 40 percent from the previous year.^[5]
''See also: Persecution of Muslims, Chinese mosques, Chinese Islamic cuisine

Christianity

Main articles: Christianity in China

The first entry of Christianity into China was the introduction of Nestorianism spread by Middle-Eastern travellers who came to China in AD 635, as documented by the Nestorian Stone in Xi'an.
In 1289, Franciscan friars from Europe initiated mission work in China. This mission collapsed in 1368, as the Ming Dynasty abolished Christianity in China. The first Jesuit attempt to reach China was made in 1552 by Francis Xavier, but he died the same year on the Chinese island of Shangchuan, without having reached the mainland. In 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work in China, introducing Western science, mathematics, and astronomy. One of these missionaries was Matteo Ricci.
Since loosening of restrictions on religion after the 1970s, Christianity has grown significantly within the People's Republic. The Three-Self Patriotic Movement and China Christian Council (Protestant) and the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, which has disavowed the Pope and is considered schismatic by other Roman Catholics, have affiliations with government and follow the regulations imposed upon them. Many Christians choose however to meet independently, typically in house churches. These fellowships are not officially registered and are seen as illegal entities and are sometimes harassed. There has been increasing tolerance of house churches since the late 1970s. Many Chinese Christians have been jailed because of their faith especially from the house churches. But the movement of house churches continues to grow including Bible study groups and unofficial seminaries.
Estimates of Christians in China are difficult to obtain because of the numbers of Christians unwilling to reveal their beliefs, the hostility of the national government towards some Christian sects, and difficulties in obtaining accurate statistics on house churches. However, in a recent survey, it was found that about three percent of the population, roughly 70 million, are Christians.^[6] In 2007 according to an official at the Chinese government religions affairs department, there are 130 million Catholic and Protestant Christians in China.^[7]
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Judaism

Main articles: Judaism in China

During the Tang Dynasty (7-10 cent. AD) or earlier, small groups of Jews settled in China. The most prominent early community was at Kaifeng, in Henan province. (''see Kaifeng Jews'') In the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Hong Kong and Shanghai during those cities' periods of economic expansion in the first decades of the century, as well as for the purpose of seeking refuge from the Holocaust in Western Europe and from the communist revolution in Russia. Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, most of whom left after the war, the rest relocating prior to or immediately after the establishment of the People's Republic. Today, the Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct. Many descendants of the Kaifeng community still live among the Chinese population, mostly unaware of their Jewish ancestry. Meanwhile, remnants of the later arrivals maintain communities in Shanghai and Hong Kong. In recent years a community has also developed in Beijing.
More recently, since the late 20th century, along with the study of religion in general, the study of Judaism and Jews in China as an academic subject has begun to blossom.

Recent sects

★ Way of Former Heaven

★ Falun Gong

★ I-Kuān Tao ("Way of Unity")

★ T'ung-shan She ("Society of Goodness")

★ Tien-te Sheng-chiao ("Sacred Religion of Celestial Virtue")

★ Tao-yuan ("Sanctuary of the Tao")

★ Tz'u-hui Tang ("Compassion Society")

The People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China was established in 1949 and for much of its early history maintained a hostile attitude toward religion which was seen as emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism. Houses of worship, including temples, mosques, and churches, were converted into non-religious buildings for secular use.
In the early years of the People's Republic, religious belief or practice was often discouraged because it was regarded by the government as backwards and superstitious and because some Communist leaders, ranging from Vladimir Lenin to Mao Zedong, had been critical of religious institutions. During the Cultural Revolution, religion was condemned as feudalistic and thousands of religious buildings were looted and destroyed.
This attitude, however, relaxed considerably in the late 1970s, with the end of the Cultural Revolution. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Since the mid-1990s there has been a massive program to rebuild Buddhist and Taoist temples that were destroyed in the Cultural Revolution.
The Communist Party has said that religious belief and membership are incompatible. Party membership is a necessity for many high level careers and posts. That along with other official hostility makes statistical reporting on religious membership difficult. There are five recognized religions by the state, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholic Christianity, and Protestant Christianity.^[8]
Most people report no organized religious affiliation; however, people with belief in folk traditions and non-religious spiritual beliefs, such as ancestor veneration and feng shui, along with informal ties to local temples and unofficial house churches is in the hundreds of millions. The United States Department of State, in its annual report on International Religious Freedom,^[9] gives possibly the most reliable statistics about organized religions. In 2004 it reports the following:
:
★ Buddhists 8%, with more than 200,000 monks and nuns. This value is seen as extremely low because there are more than 16,000 Buddhist temples that do not maintain traditional congregations.
:
★ Taoists, unknown as a percentage, there are more than 25,000 Taoist monks and nuns at more than 1,500 temples. Taoist belief is often intertwined with both Buddhism and traditional folk religions.
:
★ Muslims, 1.4%, with more than 45,000 Imams. Other estimates are much higher.
:
★ Protestant Christians, 0.8 to 1.2% with official churches. It is estimated that another 2.5% of the population is a Protestant Christian worshipping through an unofficial house church.
:
★ Catholic Christians, 0.4% with official churches, with another 0.4 to 0.8% estimated to be attending unofficial Catholic services.
It should be noted, however, that statistics relating to Buddhism and religious Taoism are to some degree incomparable with statistics for Islam and Christianity. This is due to the traditional Chinese belief system which blends Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, so that a person who follows a traditional belief system would not necessarily identify him- or herself as either Buddhist or Taoist, despite regularly attending Buddhist or Taoist places of worship.

References

1. Ethel R. Nelson, Richard E. Broadberry, and Ginger Tong Chock. God's Promise to the Chinese. p 8. ISBN 0-937869-01-5.
2. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml
3. http://chinaabc.showchina.org/chinaabc_en/religion/200701/t105539.htm
4. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/HI06Ad01.html
5. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-12/28/content_769373.htm
6. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm
7. http://hrwf.org/religiousfreedom/news/2007PDF/China%202007.doc
8. http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36492.htm
9. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/irf/rpt/

Further reading

★ De Groot, J.J.M. (Jan Jakob Maria), "The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith", Brill Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892-1910. In six volumes.

★ Manchao, Cheng, "The Origin of Chinese Deities", Foreign Languages Press, Beijing, 1995. ISBN 7-119-00030-6

★ Paper, Jordan, "The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion", SUNY Press, 1995.

See also

★ Ancestor worship

★ Feng shui

★ Chinese folk religion

★ Hinduism in China

★ Islam in China

★ Opium Wars - Lead to the granting of full rights for Christians to evangelize in China

★ Opium of the people - Communist view on religion as inspired by Karl Marx

★ Religion in Taiwan

★ Christianity in China

External links

★ Statistics of religions in China by Chinese government

★ "Islam in China" by British Photojournalist Sean Gallagher

★ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35396.htm - United States Department of State 2004 International Religious Freedom Report on China, including supplements on Hong Kong and Macau

★ Surveys/analyses of religious freedom in China by Forum 18 News Service

★ The Sleeping Giant awakes: China reconsiders the need for spirituality to balance scientific development and consumerism, Science & Theology News

★ The American School of Classical Feng Shui