The 'reindeer', known as 'caribou' when wild in
North America, is an
Arctic and
Subarctic-dwelling
deer (''Rangifer tarandus'').
Habitat
The 'reindeer' is distributed throughout a number of northern locales. Reindeer are found in northern
Scandinavia; at
Spitsbergen; in
European parts of
Russia including northern Russia and
Novaya Zemlya; in the
Asian parts of
Russia; northern Mongolia; northeastern China to the
Pacific Ocean; in
North America (where it is called the 'caribou'); on
Greenland,
Canada and
Alaska. Until the early nineteenth century it still occurred in southern
Idaho.
[1] In
1952 reindeer were re-introduced to
Scotland, as the natural stock had become extinct, probably in the
10th century.
Southern-most reindeer: a South Georgian reindeer with velvet-covered antlers.
reindeer are mostly found in northern
Scandinavia and
Russia, and wild reindeer are mostly found in Norway, North America, Greenland and
Iceland (where they were introduced by humans in the
18th century). The last wild reindeer in Europe are found in portions of southern
Norway. The southern boundary of the species' natural range is approximately at 62° north
latitude.
A few reindeer from
Norway were introduced to the
South Atlantic island of
South Georgia in the beginning of the 20th century. Today there are two distinct herds still thriving there, permanently separated by glaciers. Their total numbers are no more than a few thousand. (The
flag and the
coat of arms of the territory contain an image of a reindeer.)
Anatomy
Reindeer antlers grow again each year under a layer of fur called velvet. This reindeer is currently losing the velvet layer on one of its antlers.
The weight of a female varies between 60 and 170 kg. In some subspecies of reindeer, the male is slightly larger; in others, the male can weigh up to 300 kg. Both sexes grow
antlers, which (in the Scandinavian variety) for old males fall off in December, for young males in the early spring, and for females, summer. The antlers typically have two separate groups of points (see image), a lower and upper.
Domesticated reindeer are shorter-legged and heavier than their wild counterparts. The caribou of North America can run at speeds up to 80
km/h (50
miles per hour) and may travel 5,000 km (3,000 miles) in a year.
Reindeer are
ruminants, having a four-chambered stomach. They mainly eat
lichens in winter, especially
reindeer moss. However, they also eat the leaves of
willows and
birches, as well as
sedges and
grasses. There is some evidence to suggest that on occasion they will also feed on
lemmings.
[2] arctic char and bird eggs
[3]
Reindeer have specialized noses featuring nasal
turbinate bones that dramatically increase the surface area within the
nostrils. Incoming cold air is warmed by the animal's
body heat before entering the lungs, and water is condensed from the expired air and captured before the deer's breath is exhaled, used to moisten dry incoming air and possibly absorbed into the blood through the
mucous membranes.
Reindeer hooves adapt to the season: in the summer, when the tundra is soft and wet, the footpads become spongy and provide extra traction. In the winter, the pads shrink and tighten, exposing the rim of the hoof which cuts into the ice and crusted snow to keep the animal from slipping. This also enables them to dig down (an activity known as "cratering")
["In the winter, the fleshy pads on these toes grow longer and form a tough, hornlike rim. Caribou use these large, sharp-edged hooves to dig through the snow and uncover the lichens that sustain them in winter months. Biologists call this activity "cratering" because of the crater-like cavity the caribou’s hooves leave in the snow." All About Caribou. - Project Caribou][Image of reindeer cratering in snow.] through the
snow to their favorite food, a
lichen known as
reindeer moss.
The reindeer coat has two layers of
fur, a dense
woolly undercoat and longer-haired overcoat consisting of hollow, air-filled hairs. A caribou or reindeer swims easily and fast; migrating herds will not hesitate to swim across a large lake or broad river.
Population
In the wild, most caribou migrate in large herds between their birthing habitat and their winter habitat. Their wide hooves help the animals move through snow and tundra; they also help propel the animal when it swims. About 1 million live in Alaska, and a comparable number live in
northern Canada.
There are an estimated 5 million reindeer in Eurasia, mainly semi-domesticated. The last remaining European herds of the genetic wild reindeer (of the subspecies ''tarandus'') are found in central Norway, mainly in the mountainous areas of
Rondane, Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella (see
Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park),
Hardangervidda and
Setesdalsheiene.
Genetic analysis has shown this, and that the reindeer in Rondane and Dovrefjell is of
Beringia origin, other wild Norwegian reindeer are of European origin and have interbred with domesticated reindeer to a various extent, the reindeer in Hardangervidda and Setesdalsheiane only to a limited extent. Some areas, such as
Filefjell, have populations of reindeer that have been herded in the past but are now left free. Scandinavian domesticated reindeer are supposed to be a mixture of the two subspecies ''tarandus'' and ''fennicus'' - mountain and Finnish woodland reindeer.
Males usually split apart from the group and become solitary, while the remaining herd consists mostly of females, usually a
matriarchy.
Diseases and threats
Natural threats to reindeer include
avalanches and predators such as
wolves,
wolverines,
lynxes, and
bears.
Golden eagles may be seen to kill calves up to 1/2 year by using their talons to puncture their lungs.
Parasites include
warble flies,
mosquitoes,
ticks and
nose bot flies.
Roundworms,
tapeworms,
[4] meningeal worms (Paralaphostrongylus tenius) and
sarcocystis can also afflict reindeer. In some Canadian provinces, caribou are commonly infected with giant liver fluke ''
Fascioloides magna''.
[5]
Diseases include
brucellosis, foot rot, and
keratitis (white-eye, an infection of the eye), and
sarcocystosis.
Wild reindeer are considered to be very vulnerable to human disturbance, especially the last two months before and during the calving period in late May (this varies some weeks between different areas).
In Canada, the woodland caribou is under threat from extensive logging operations. Because the caribou need the boreal forest to survive, the destruction of this habitat has put this animal at risk of extinction. Logging and
logging roads also attract deer (and deer diseases) and moose, which brings in predators such as hunters, wolves and bears. In May 2002, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the
Atlantic-
Gaspésie population of Woodland Caribou as endangered.
Reindeer and humans
Hunting
Reindeer hunting by humans has a very long history and caribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting."
["In North America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resource--in many areas ''the'' most important resource--for peoples inhabiting the northern boreal forest and tundra regions. Known human dependence on caribou/wild reindeer has a long history, beginning in the Middle Pleistocene (Banfield 1961:170; Kurtén 1968:170) and continuing to the present....The caribou/wild reindeer is thus an animal that has been a major resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens of thousands of years." Ernest S. Burch, Jr. The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource. ''American Antiquity'', Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1972), pp. 339-368.]
Humans started hunting reindeer in the
Mesolithic and
Neolithic periods and humans are today the main predator in many areas. Norway and Greenland have unbroken traditions of hunting wild reindeer from the
ice age until the present day. In the non-forested mountains of central Norway, such as
Jotunheimen, it is still possible to find remains of stone built
trapping pits,
guiding fences and
bow rests, built especially for hunting reindeer. These can, with some certainty, be dated to the
Migration period although it is not unlikely that they have been in use since the
Stone Age.
In absence of other great predators in significant populations, hunting is today a necessary means to control stocks to prevent
over-grazing and eventually mass death from starvation. Norway is now preparing to apply for nomination as a
World Heritage Site for areas with traces and traditions of reindeer hunting in Central
Southern Norway.
Wild caribou are still hunted in North America and Greenland. In the traditional lifestyle of the
Inuit people, Northern
First Nations people,
Alaska Natives, and
Greenlandic Eskimos, the caribou is an important source of food, clothing, shelter and tools.
Reindeer husbandry
Milking reindeer in the 19th century
Reindeer have been herded for centuries by several Arctic people including the
Sami people and the
Nenets. They are raised for their meat, hides, antlers, and (especially formerly) also for milk and transportation. Reindeer are not considered fully domesticated, as they generally roam free on pasture grounds. In traditional nomadic herding reindeer herders migrate with their herds between coast and inland areas according to an annual migration route, and herds are keenly tended. However, reindeer have never been bred in captivity, though they were tamed for milking as well as for use as draught animals or
beasts of burden.
The use of reindeer as semi-domesticated livestock in Alaska was introduced in the late 1800s by
Sheldon Jackson as a means of providing a livelihood for
Native peoples there. A regular mail run in
Wales, Alaska used a sleigh drawn by reindeer. In Alaska, reindeer herders use
satellite telemetry to track their herds, using online maps and databases to chart the herd's progress.
Economy
The reindeer has (or has had) an important economic role for all
circumpolar peoples, including the
Sami,
Nenets,
Khants,
Evenks,
Yukaghirs,
Chukchi and
Koryaks in
Eurasia. It is believed that domestication started between
Bronze Age-
Iron Age.
Siberian deer-owners also use the reindeer to ride on. (Siberian reindeer are larger than their
Scandinavian relatives.) For breeders, a single owner may own hundreds or even thousands of animals. The numbers of
Russian herders have been drastically reduced since the fall of the
Soviet Union. The fur and meat is sold, which is an important source of income. Reindeer were introduced into
Alaska near the end of the
19th century; they interbreed with native caribou subspecies there. Reindeer herders on the
Seward Peninsula have experienced significant losses to their herds from animals (such as wolves) following the wild caribou during their migrations.
Reindeer meat is popular in the
Scandinavian countries. Reindeer
meatballs are sold canned.
Sautéed reindeer is the best-known dish in Lapland. In Alaska, reindeer
sausage is sold locally to supermarkets and
grocery stores.
Reindeer
antler is powdered and sold as an
aphrodisiac, nutritional or medicinal supplement to Asian markets.
In history
The first written description of reindeer is in
Julius Caesar's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico (chapter 6.26) from the
1st century BC. Here, it is described:
Local names
The name ''Caribou'' comes from
Míkmaq ''qalipu'', meaning "snow-shoveler", referring to its habit of pawing through the snow for food.
[6] In
Inuktitut the caribou is known by the name tuttuk (Labrador dialect).
Subspecies
★ '
Woodland Caribou' (''R. tarandus caribou''), or 'forest caribou', once found in the North American
boreal forests from
Alaska to
Newfoundland and as far south as
New England and
Washington. Woodland Caribou have disappeared from most of their original southern range and are considered "
threatened" where they remain, with the notable exception of the
Migratory Woodland Caribou of northern
Quebec and
Labrador, Canada. The name of the
Cariboo district of central
British Columbia relates to their once-large numbers there, but they have almost vanished from that area in the last century. A herd is protected in the
Caribou Mountains in
Alberta.
★ 'Arctic reindeer' (''R. tarandus eogroenlandicus''), an extinct subspecies found until 1900 in eastern Greenland.
★ 'Finnish Forest Reindeer' (''R. tarandus fennicus''), found in the wild in only two areas of the
Fennoscandia peninsula of
Northern Europe, in Finnish/Russian
Karelia, and a small population in central south
Finland. The Karelia population reaches far into Russia, however, so far that it remains an open question whether reindeer further to the east are ''R. t. fennicus'' as well.
★ '
Grant's Caribou' (''R. tarandus granti'') which are found in
Alaska and the
Yukon and
Northwest territories of Canada.
★ '
Barren-ground Caribou' (''R. tarandus groenlandicus''), found in the
Nunavut and
Northwest territories of Canada and in western
Greenland.
★ '
Peary Caribou' (''R. tarandus pearyi''), found in the northern islands of the
Nunavut and
Northwest territories of Canada.
★ 'Svalbard Reindeer' (''R. tarandus platyrhynchus''), found on the
Svalbard islands of Norway, is the smallest subspecies of reindeer.
★ 'Mountain/Wild Reindeer' (''R. tarandus tarandus''), found in the
Arctic tundra of Eurasia, including the
Fennoscandia peninsula of Northern Europe.
★ '
Queen Charlotte Islands caribou' (''R. tarandus dawsoni'') is an
extinct subspecies that had once lived in Graham Island, British Columbia, Canada.
Rangifer.net has a
map of subspecies ranges.
Reindeer in fiction
Santa Claus' reindeer
Main articles: Santa Claus' reindeer
Two Scottish reindeer relax after pulling Santa's sleigh, at the switching on of Christmas lights
Reindeer are often used in works of
Christmas-related fiction, as
Santa Claus' sleigh is said to be pulled by flying reindeer. These were first named in the
1823 poem ''
A Visit from St. Nicholas'', where they are called Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Dunder and Blixem. Dunder was later changed to Donder and — in other works — Donner, and Blixem was later changed to Blitzen.
In later works, other reindeer have been added to this list, including:
★
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer
★
Robbie the Reindeer
★
Olive, the Other Reindeer (actually a
dog that thinks she's a reindeer)
★ Chet from ''
The Santa Clause 2''
★ Annabelle from ''
Annabelle's Wish'' (a cow that turns into a reindeer)
Other fictional reindeer
In the
Art Spiegelman graphic novel series ''
Maus'', which deals with the
Holocaust, different
ethnic groups are portrayed as various animals in order to call attention to
racism. The
Swedish are portrayed as reindeer.
Other reindeer in fiction include
★
Tony Tony Chopper of the
anime and
manga series ''
One Piece''
★ Mime from the ''
Happy Tree Friends''
cartoon series
Miscellaneous
★ The Canadian
quarter features a depiction of a Caribou on one face.
★ Several Norwegian municipalities have one or more reindeer depicted in their coat-of-arms:
Eidfjord,
Porsanger,
Rendalen,
Tromsø,
Vadsø and
Vågå.
★ The historic province of
Västerbotten in
Sweden has a reindeer in its coat-of-arms. The present
Västerbotten County has very different borders and uses the reindeer combined with other symbols in its coat-of-arms. The city of
Piteå also has a reindeer.
★ The Swedish band
The Knife has a song called "Reindeer" which describes the trip of several of these animals accompanying
Santa Claus as he delivers
Christmas presents.
★ The Caribou is the official provincial animal of
Newfoundland & Labrador,
Canada.
References
1. Ronald M. Nowak: ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 ISBN 0-8018-5789-9
2. Field & Stream - Dream Hunts: Caribou on the Move
3. Terrestrial Mammals of Nunavut by Ingrid Anand-Wheeler. ISBN 1-55325-035-4.
4. ''Taenia krabbei''. Parasites of Caribou (3): Tapeworm Cysts
5. Pybus, M.J., 2001. Liver flukes. In: Samuel, W.M., Pybus, M.J., Kocan, A.A. (eds.), Parasitic diseases in wild mammals, Iowa State Press, Iowa City, pp 121–149.
6. Flexner, Stuart Berg and Leonore Crary Hauck, eds. (1987). ''The Random House Dictionary of the English Language'', 2nd ed. (unabridged). New York: Random House, pp. 315-16)
★
★ Reindeer Roundup! A K-12 Educator's Guide to Reindeer in Alaska. 2004. Carrie Bucki with Greg Finstad and Tammy A. Smith.
Reindeer Research Program,
University of Alaska Fairbanks.
External links
★
Reindeers.info - Articles and information about Reindeer
★
General information on Caribou and Reindeer
★
Human Role in Reindeer/Caribou Systems
★
Wild reindeer areas in Norway
★
Reindeer Studies in South Georgia and Norway
★
Frequently Asked Questions about Caribou from the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
★
Reindeer hunting as World Heritage - a ten thousand year-long tradition
★
Mammal Fact Sheets: Caribou
★
Adaptations To Life In The Arctic - Instructional slide-show, University of Alaska
★
''Villreinen'' magazine (Norwegian for ''Wild Reindeer'')
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