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'Reeducation camp' (trại học tập cải tạo) is the official name given to the prison camps operated by the government of Vietnam following the end of the Vietnam War. In such "reeducation camps", the government imprisoned several hundred thousand former military officers and government workers from the former South Vietnam. Reeducation as it was implemented in Vietnam was both a means of revenge and a sophisticated technique of repression and indoctrination which developed for several years in the North and was extended to the South following the 1975 North Vietnam takeover.
The term 'reeducation camp' is also used to refer to prison camps operated by the People's Republic of China during the Cultural Revolution, or to the laogai and laojiao camps currently operated by the Chinese government. Theory underlying such camps is the Maoist theory of reforming anti-revolutionaries into socialist citizens by reeducation through labor.

Contents

Meaning of the term 'trại học tập cải tạo'

Historical background

Government view on the reeducation camps

Registration and arrest

The camps

Indoctrination and forced confessions

The work

Conditions at the camp

Rules and regulations

Visitation

The release of prisoners

Number of victims

See also

External links

Meaning of the term 'trại học tập cải tạo'

The term 'reeducation', with its pedagogical overtones, does not quite convey the quasi-mystical resonance of 'trại học tập cải tạo' in Vietnamese. Cải (to transform) and tạo (to create) combine to literally mean an attempt at recreation, and making over sinful or incomplete individuals.

Historical background

In 1973, the various parties in the Vietnam War signed a peace treaty. Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements guaranteed the people of South Vietnam the following rights: 1) Freedom from reprisal and discrimination against those who collaborated with one side or the other during the war, and 2) Democratic freedoms, such as freedom of speech, press, belief, movement, and assembly.
When the DRV and NLF launched the 1975 Spring Offensive, leading to the military takeover of South Vietnam, they claimed they did so in order to "enforce" the Paris Agreements. Yet upon taking control over the South, these new leaders did not set about to implement the rights mentioned in Article 11.
The hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese who were imprisoned in reeducation camps since 1975 basically fall into two categories:
1) Those who were detained in reeducation camps since 1975 because they collaborated with the other side during the
war, and 2) Those who were arrested in the years since 1975 for attempting to exercise such democratic freedoms as those
mentioned in Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements.
In other words, both categories of prisoners were held in direct violation of Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements, an
international treaty, and therefore of international law.
After the fall of Saigon on April 30th, 1975, hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese men, from former officers in the armed forces, to religious leaders, to employees of the Americans or the old government, were rounded up in reeducation camps to "learn about the ways of the new government." They were never trialed, judged nor convicted of any crime. Many South Vietnamese men chose to flee on boats, but others had established lives and loved ones in Vietnam, so did not flee but entered these camps in hopes of quickly reconciling with the new government and continuing their lives peacefully.

Government view on the reeducation camps

Officially, the Vietnamese government does not consider the reeducation camps prisons, but rather places where individuals could be into society through education and socially constructive labor. In reality however, the camps were terrible places in which men were forced to work at hard labor with little food and minimal medical attention. The inmates were forced to Vietnam's "new economic zones" - isolated areas of the country which the government hoped to make fruitful.
The Hanoi regime and its apologists defended the reeducation camps by placing the "war criminal" label on the prisoners. A 1981 memorandum of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam to Amnesty International claimed that all those in the reeducation camps were guilty of acts of national treason as defined in Article 3 of the 30 October 1967 Law on Counter-revolutionary Crimes (enacted for the government of North Vietnam) which specifies punishment of 20 years to life imprisonment or the death penalty. But because the regime was so merciful, it was instead allowing the prisoners to experience "reeducation without trial," which "as applied in Vietnam is the most humanitarian system, and the most advantageous for law offenders... in accordance with the tradition of generosity and humanitarianism of the Vietnamese nation and the loftiest ideals of mankind."

Registration and arrest

In May of 1975, various groups of Vietnamese were ordered to register with the new regime that had established control over
the South on April 30, 1975. Then, in June, the new regime issued orders instructing those who had registered in May to report to various places for reeducation. Soldiers, noncommissioned officers and rank-and-file personnel of the former South
Vietnamese government were to undergo three-day "reform study," June 11-13, in which they would attend during the day and go home at night.
The others ordered to report for "reform study" were not allowed to attend during the day and go home at night, but were instead
to be confined to their sites of "reform study" until the course ended. Nevertheless, there was some hope, for the government gave the clear impression that reform study would last no more than a month for even the highest ranking officers and officials of the former government in South Vietnam, and ten days for lower-ranking officers and officials.
Thus, officers of the RVN armed forces from the rank of second lieutenant to captain, along with low-ranking
police officers and intelligence cadres, were ordered to report to various sites, bringing along "enough paper, pens, clothes,
mosquito nets, personal effects, food or money for use in ten days beginning from the day of gathering." High- ranking military and police officers of the RVN, from major to general, along with mid and high-ranking intelligence officers, members of the RVN executive, judicial and legislative branches, including all elected members of the House of Representatives and Senate, and, finally, leaders of "reactionary" (i.e. non-communist) political parties in South Vietnam, were ordered to report to various sites bringing enough "paper, pens, clothes, mosquito-nets, personal effects, food or money for a month
beginning the first meeting."
The new government announced there would be three days of reeducation for RVN soldiers, ten days for low-ranking officers and officials, and one month for high-ranking RVN officers and officials. Many teachers reported for reeducation, assuming that they would have to undergo it sooner or later anyway. Sick people also reported for reeducation, assured by the government (falsely) that there would be medical doctors and facilities in the "schools" and the patients would be well treated.

The camps

Indoctrination and forced confessions

During the early phase of reeducation, lasting from a few weeks to a few months, inmates were subjected to intensive political
indoctrination. Subjects' studies included the exploitation by "American imperialism" of workers in other countries, the glory of labor, the inevitable victory of Vietnam, led by the Communist Party, over the U.S., and the generosity of the new government toward the "rebels" (those who fought on the other side during the war). Another feature emphasized during the early stage of reeducation, but continued throughout one's imprisonment, was confession of one's alleged misdeeds in the past. All prisoners in the camps were required to write confessions, no matter how trivial their alleged crimes might be. Mail clerks, for example, were told that they were guilty of aiding the "puppet war machinery" through circulating the mail, while religious chaplains were found guilty of providing spiritual comfort and encouragement to the enemy troops.

The work

Much emphasis in the reeducation camps was placed on "productive labor." Such labor was described by SRV spokesman Hoang Son as
"absolutely necessary" for reeducation because "under the former regime, they (the prisoners) represented the upper strata of
society and got rich under U.S. patronage. They could but scorn the working people. Now the former social order has been turned
upside down, and after they have finished their stay in camps they have to earn their living by their own labour and live in a
society where work is held in honor." Thus, in the eyes of the Vietnamese rulers, "productive labor" was a necessary aspect
in the overturning of the social order. Yet in examining the conditions under which this labor takes place, it seems that
there was also an element of revenge.
The labor was mostly hard physical work, some of it very dangerous, such as mine field sweeping. No technical equipment were provided for this extremely risky work, and as a result, many prisoners were killed or wounded in mine field explosions. Other kinds of work included cutting trees, planting corn and root crops, clearing the jungle, digging wells, latrines and garbage pits, and constructing barracks within the camp and fences around it. The inmates were generally organized into platoons and work units, where they were forced to compete with each other for better records and work achievements. This often pushed inmates to exhaustion and nervousness with each person and group striving to surpass or at least fulfill the norms set by camp authorities, or they would be classified as `lazy' and ordered to do 'compensation work' on Sundays. Sometimes prisoners who missed their quota were shackled and placed in solitary confinement cells.

Conditions at the camp

The work was done in the hot tropical sun, by prisoners who were poorly nourished and received little or no medical care. The poor health, combined with hard work, mandatory confessions and political indoctrination, made life very difficult for prisoners in Vietnam, and contributed to a high death rate in the camps.
Former prisoners describe the lack of food resulting in a constant hunger while they were in the camps. It is believed that the government deliberately kept the prisoners on low rations in order to weaken their ability to unite and resist camp policies. The lack of food caused severe malnutrition for many prisoners and weakened their resistance to various diseases. Most
common among the diseases were malaria, beriberi and dysentery. Tuberculosis were also widespread in some of the
camps. Medical supplies were generally nonexistent in the camps and medical care were very inadequate, usually limited to a poorly trained medic and perhaps a few prisoners who had formerly been medical doctors. The result was a high death rate from diseases.

Rules and regulations

The authorities sought to maintain strict control over the thoughts of the prisoners, and forbade prisoners from keeping and reading books or magazines of the former regime, reminiscing in conversation about "imperialism and the puppet south," singing old love songs of the former regime, discussing political questions (outside authorized discussions), harboring "reactionary" thoughts or possessing "superstitious" beliefs. It was also forbidden to be impolite to the cadres of the camp, and this rule was sometimes abused to the point where the slightest indication of a lack of reverence to the cadres had been interpreted as rudeness and therefore harshly punished.
It has been acknowledged by Hanoi that violence has in fact been directed against the prisoners, although it maintains that these are isolated cases and not indicative of general camp policy. Former prisoners, on the other hand, report frequent beatings for minor infractions, such as missing work because of illness. Violations of rules lead to various forms of
punishment, including being tied up in contorted positions, shackled in connex boxes or dark cells, forced to work extra
hours or reduced food rations. Many prisoners were beaten, some to death, or subjected to very harsh forms of punishment due to the cruelty of certain camp officials and guards. Some were executed, especially for attempting to escape.

Visitation

As of 1980, official regulations stated that prisoners in the camps could be visited by their immediate family once every three months. Family visits were important not only because of the personal need for prisoners and their loved ones to have contact with each other, but also because the families could bring food to their relatives in some of the camps. It has been reported that the prisoners in these camps could not survive without such food. The duration of the visits was not long, reported by former prisoners to last from 15 to 30 minutes. Moreover, family visits could be suspended for prisoners who broke the rules: and it has also been said that only families who have proven their loyalty to the regime were allowed visiting privileges.
Most of the former prisoners interviewed have been in between three to five different reeducation camps. It is believed that the movement of prisoners from one camp to another were intended to delay both the inmates and the inmates relatives of the camp location. The first was done to prevent prison escapees, and the latter to prevent relatives from visiting.

The release of prisoners

In June of 1976, the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam, in one of its last policy announcements before the official reunification of Vietnam, stated that those in the camps would either be tried or released after three years imprisonment. But this promise was broken. The policy announced that those still in the camps would stay there for three years, but could be released earlier if they made "real progress, confess their crimes and score merits." It also said that some Vietnamese would be brought to trial, including those who deserted the NLF during the war, those who owed "many blood debts" to the people and those who fled to "foreign countries with their U.S. masters."
Since there were no clear criteria for releasing the inmates from the camps, bribery and family connections with high-ranking officials were more likely to speed up release than the prisoner's behavior. Released prisoners were put under probation and surveillance for six months to one year, and during this time they had no official status, no exit visas, no access to government food rations and no right to send their children to school. If the progress of the former prisoners is judged unsatisfactory during this period, they may be fired from their jobs, put under surveillance for another six months to a year, or sent back to the reeducation camps. Approximately 60% of those released have been re-arrested, according to a high-ranking Vietnamese official. Faced with these challenges, many chose to flee the country and become boat people.
The U.S. government considers reeducation camp inmates to be political prisoners. In 1989, the Reagan administration entered into an agreement with the Vietnamese government, pursuant to which Vietnam would free all former RVN soldiers and officials held in reeducation camps and allow them to emigrate to the United States. Thus began the third large influx of Vietnamese immigrants into the country.

Number of victims

The number of inmates and death figures at the various camps are unclear due to the secrecy of the Vietnamese government. Crude estimates range from 500,000 to over 2 million inmates. Estimated death figures due to diseases, starvation, execution and working accidents range from tens of thousands to over 100,000 dead.

See also

★ The Vietnamese Gulag

★ Human rights abuses in Vietnam after the fall of Saigon

External links

★ Reeducation camp

★ Denney Stephen, Human rights and daily life in Viêtnam, Report prepared for the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, March 25, 1990

★ Denney Stephen and Sagan Ginetta, Re-education in unliberated Viêtnam : loneliness, suffering and death, the Indochina newsletter October-November 1982