'Reduplication', in
linguistics, is a
morphological process by which the
root or
stem of a
word, or only part of it, is repeated.
Reduplication is used both in
inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in
lexical derivation to create new
words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively,
iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic
productivity varies.
Typological description
Form
Reduplication is often described
phonologically in one of two different ways: either (1) as reduplicated ''segments'' (sequences of
consonants/
vowels) or (2) as reduplicated ''
prosodic units'' (
syllables or
moras). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described
morphologically as a reduplication of linguistic
constituents (i.e.
words,
stems,
roots). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.
The ''base'' is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the ''reduplicant'', often abbreviated as ''
RED'' or sometimes just ''R''.
In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a ''duple'' as in most reduplication. ''Triplication'' is the term for this phenomenon of copying three times.
Pingelapese has both reduplication and triplication.
| Basic Verb | Reduplication | Triplication |
|---|
| 'to sing' | 'singing' | 'still singing' |
| 'to sleep' | 'sleeping' | 'still sleeping' |
(Rehg 1981)
Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g.
Ewe,
Shipibo,
Twi,
Mokilese,
Min Nan.
Sometimes
gemination (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term ''dupleme'' has been used (after ''morpheme'') to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.
Full and partial reduplication
''Full reduplication'' involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example,
Kham derives reciprocal forms from
reflexive forms by total reduplication:
| | | | 'ourselves' | → | | 'we (to) us' | |
| | | | 'themselves' | → | | 'they (to) them' | | (Watters 2002) |
Another example is from Musqueam
Halkomelem "dispositional"
aspect formation:
| | | | 'to capsize' | → | | 'likely to capsize' | |
| | | | 'to speak' | → | | 'talkative' | | (Shaw 2004) |
''Partial reduplication'' involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example,
Marshallese forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last ''consonant-vowel-consonant'' (''CVC'') sequence of a base, i.e. ''base''+''CVC'':
| | | ''kagir'' | 'belt' | → | ''kagirgir'' | 'to wear a belt' | (kagir-gir) |
| | | ''takin'' | 'sock' | → | ''takinkin'' | 'to wear socks' | (takin-kin) | (Moravsik 1978) |
Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the
Motu example below:
| Base Verb | Full reduplication | Partial reduplication |
|---|
| ''mahuta'' 'to sleep' | ''mahutamahuta'' 'to sleep constantly' | ''mamahuta'' 'to sleep (plural)' |
| | (''mahuta-mahuta'') | (''ma-mahuta'') |
Reduplicant position
Reduplication may be ''initial'' (i.e.
prefixal), ''final'' (i.e.
suffixal), or ''internal'' (i.e.
infixal), e.g.
'Initial' reduplication in
Agta ''(CV- prefix)'':
| | | | 'afternoon' | → | | 'late afternoon' | |
| | | | 'a long time' | → | | 'a long time (in years)' | (''ŋa''-ŋaŋaj) | (Healey 1960) |
'Final' reduplication in
Dakota ''(-CCV suffix)'':
| | | | 'tall (singular)' | → | | 'tall (plural)' | (hãska-''ska'') |
| | | | 'good (singular)' | → | | 'good (plural)' | | (Marantz 1982, Albright 2002) |
'Internal' reduplication in
Samoan ''(-CV- infix)'':
| | | ''savali'' | 'they walk' | → | ''savavali'' | 'he walks' | (sa-''va''-vali) |
| | | ''alofa'' | 'they love' | → | ''alolofa'' | 'he loves' | (a-''lo''-lofa) | (Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984) |
Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.
Copying direction
A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (''left-to-right'' copying) or from the right edge (''right-to-left'' copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:
Initial 'L → R' copying in Oykangand
Kunjen (a
Pama-Nyungan language of
Australia):
| | | | → | | 'rain' | (''ed''-eder) |
| | | | → | | 'straight' | (''alg''-algal) |
Final 'R → L' copying in
Sirionó:
| | | ''achisia'' | → | ''achisiasia'' | 'I cut' | (achisia-''sia'') |
| | | ''ñimbuchao'' | → | ''ñimbuchaochao'' | 'to come apart' | (ñimbuchao-''chao'') | (McCarthy and Prince 1996) |
Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:
Initial 'R → L' copying in
Tillamook:
| | | | 'eye' | → | | 'eyes' | |
| | | | 'break' | → | | 'they break' | | (Reichard 1959) |
Final 'L → R' copying in
Chukchi:
| | | ''nute-'' | 'ground' | → | ''nutenut'' | 'ground (abs. sg.)' | (nute-''nut'') |
| | | '' | 'gopher' | → | '' | 'gopher (abs. sg.)' | | (Marantz 1982) |
Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.
Internal 'L → R' copying in
Quileute:
| | | | 'he put it on' | → | | 'he put it on (frequentative)' | (tsi-''ts''-ko) |
| | | | 'snow' | → | | 'snow here and there' | (tu-''t''-koːjoʔ) | (Broselow and McCarthy 1984) |
In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root.
Internal 'R → L' copying in
Temiar (an
Austro-Asiatic language of
Malaysia):
| | | | 'to shoot (perfective)' | → | | 'to shoot (continuative)' | |
| | | | 'to marry (perfective)' | → | | 'to marry (continuative)' | | (Broselow and McCarthy 1984, Walther 2000) |
A rare type of reduplication is found in
Semai (an Austro-Asiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:
| | | | → | | 'to vomit' | |
| | | | → | | 'appearance of nodding constantly' | |
| | | | → | | 'monsoon rain' | | (Diffloth 1973, in Albright 2002) |
Reduplication and other processes
All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as
deletion,
affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc.
For instance, in
Tz'utujil a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment . This can be written succinctly as . Below are some examples:
:
★ 'red' → 'reddish'
:
★ 'yellow' → 'yellowish'
:
★ 'water' → 'watery'
(Dayley 1985)
Somali has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: ''-aC'' (where ''C'' is the last consonant of the base):
:
★ 'ditch' → 'ditches'
:
★ 'lump of meat' → 'lumps of meat'
:
★ 'boy' → 'boys'
(Abraham 1964)
(One linguist has used the word ''duplifix'' to refer to this combination of reduplication and affixation.)
In
Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves
gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:
:
★ 'ox' → 'ox (distributive)' (''no''-n-nowiu)
:
★ 'rock' → 'rock (distributive)' (''ho''-h-hodai)
:
★ 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → 'dig out of ground (repetitive)' (''ko''-k-kow)
:
★ 'hit (unitative)' → 'hit (repetitive)'
(Haugen forthcoming)
Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.
Function and meaning
In the
Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions):
:
★
Malay ''rumah'' "house", ''rumah-rumah'' "houses".
In pre-1972
Indonesian and
Malay orthography, ''2'' was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: ''orang'' "person", ''orang-orang'' or ''orang2'' "people"
[1].
The
Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a
verb: ''go'', "look;", ''go-go'' "examine with attention".
Chinese also uses reduplication: 人 ''rén'' for "person", 人人 ''rénrén'' for "everybody".
Japanese does it too: 時 ''toki'' "time", ''tokidoki'' 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written
iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in
Calligraphy.
Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of
verb forms, especially in the
preterite or
perfect tenses. In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:
:
★ ''spondeo'', ''spopondi'' (
Latin, "I vow, I vowed")
:
★ (
Greek, "I leave, I left")
:
★ (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit
ablaut as well as reduplication)
:
★ ''háitan'', ''haíháit'' (
Gothic, "to name, I named")
None of these sorts of forms survive in modern English, although they existed in its parent
Germanic languages. A number of verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the
present stem rather than the perfect stem: Latin ''gigno, genui'' ("I beget, I begat") is a surviving example. Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process; compare Latin ''sto'' ("I stand") and ''sisto'' ("I remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.
Recent
Finnish slang uses reduplicated nouns to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. E.g. ''Söin viisi jäätelöä, pullapitkon ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa.'' "I ate five choc-ices, a long loaf of coffee bread and candy, and of course food-food". Here, the "food-food" is contrasted to the "junk-food" -- the principal role of food is nutrition, and "junkfood" isn't nutritious, so "food-food" is nutritious food, exclusively.
:
★ ''ruoka'' "food", ''ruokaruoka'' "proper food", as opposed to snacks
:
★ ''peli'' "game", ''pelipeli'' "complete game",as opposed to a
mod
:
★ ''puhelin'' "phone", ''puhelinpuhelin'' "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer
:
★ ''kauas'' "far away", ''kauaskauas'' "unquestionably far away"
These sorts of reduplicative forms, such as "food-food," are not merely literal translations of the Finnish but in fact have some frequency in contemporary English for emphasising, as in Finnish, an "authentic" form of a certain thing. "Food-food" is one of the most common, along with such a possibilities for "car-car" to describe a vehicle which is actually a car (small
automobile) and not something else such as a
truck, or "house-house," for a stand-alone
house structure as opposed to an
apartment, for instance.
In
Swiss German, the verbs ''gah'' or ''goh'' "go", ''cho'' "come", ''la'' or ''lo'' "let" and ''aafa'' or ''aafo'' "begin" reduplicate when combined with other verbs.
| example: | Si | chunt | üse | Chrischtboum | cho | schmücke. |
|---|
| literal translation: | she | comes | our | Christmas tree | ''come'' | adorn |
|---|
| translation | She comes to adorn our Christmas tree. |
|---|
| example: | Si | lat | ne | nid | la | schlafe. |
|---|
| literal translation: | she | lets | him | not | ''let'' | sleep |
|---|
| translation: | She doesn't let him sleep. |
|---|
Examples
Indo-European
Common Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European language used partial reduplication in perfect tense forms of verb roots.
The Proto-Indo-European word ''q
wq
wlós'' = "
wheel" has reduplication, likely for
onomatopoeia.
English reduplication
English uses some kinds of reduplication, mostly for informal expressive vocabulary. There are three types:
★ 'Rhyming reduplications': argy-bargy, arty-farty, boogie-woogie, bow-wow, chock-a-block, claptrap, easy-peasy, eency-weency, fuddy-duddy, fuzzy-wuzzy, gang-bang, hanky-panky, harum-scarum, heebie-jeebies, helter-skelter, herky-jerky, hi-fi, higgledy-piggledy, hobnob, Hobson-Jobson, hocus-pocus, hodge-podge, hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, honey-bunny, hot-pot, hotch-potch, hubble-bubble, hugger-mugger, Humpty-Dumpty, hurdy-gurdy, hurly-burly, hurry-scurry, itsy-bitsy, itty-bitty, loosey-goosey, lovey-dovey, mumbo-jumbo, namby-pamby, nimbly-bimbly, nitty-gritty, nitwit, okey-dokey, pall-mall, palsy-walsy, pee-wee, pell-mell, picnic, razzle-dazzle, righty-tighty, roly-poly, rumpy-pumpy, sci-fi, super-duper, teenie-weenie, teeny-weeny, tidbit, walkie-talkie, willy-nilly, wingding
Although at first glance "
Abracadabra" appears to be an English rhyming reduplication it in fact is not; instead, it is derived from the
Aramaic formula "Abəra kaDavəra" meaning "I would create as I spoke")
★ 'Exact reduplications' (baby-talk-like): bonbon, bye-bye, choo-choo, chop-chop, chow-chow, dum-dum, fifty-fifty, gee-gee, go-go, goody-goody, knock-knock, night-night, no-no, pee-pee, poo-poo, pooh-pooh, rah-rah, so-so, tsk-tsk, tuk-tuk, tut-tut, wee-wee; and, of course, the hawaiian term, wiki-wiki- meaning fast.
''Couscous is not an English example for reduplication, since it is taken from a French word which has a maghrebi origin.''
★ '
Ablaut reduplications': bric-a-brac, chit-chat, criss-cross, dilly-dally, ding-dong, fiddle-faddle, flimflam, flip-flop, hippety-hoppety, kitcat, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mish-mash, ping-pong, pitter-patter, riff-raff, rickrack, riprap, see-saw, shilly-shally, sing-song, snicker-snack, splish-splash, teeny-tiny, teeter-totter, tic-tac-toe, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, tittle-tattle, wish-wash, wishy-washy, zig-zag
In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a
high vowel and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a
low vowel. There is also a tendency for the first vowel to be front and the second vowel to be back.
None of the above types are particularly
productive, meaning that the sets are fairly fixed and new forms are not easily accepted, but there is another form of reduplication that is used as a deprecative called
shm-reduplication (or schm-reduplication) that can be used with most any word; e.g. ''baby-shmaby'' or ''car-shmar''. This process comes to American English from Yiddish.
Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is
stressed) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of
Platonic ideal of the noun. This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. An extensive list of such examples is found in
[1].
More can be learned about English reduplication in Thun (1963), Cooper and Ross (1975), and Nevins and Vaux (2003).
Afrikaans reduplication
Afrikaans regularly utilizes reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated. For example, ''krap'' means "to scratch one's self," while ''krap-krap-krap'' means "to scratch one's self vigorously."
[2]
Reduplication is not present in
Dutch, the parent language of Afrikaans, except in cases of interjections.
Romance
Lingua Franca
=
Common in
Lingua Franca, particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:
"Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar." ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.")
[3]
French
A common use for reduplication in French is the creation of
hypocoristics for
names, thus ''Louise'' becomes ''
Loulou'', and
Zinedine Zidane becomes ''Zizou''.
Romanian
In Romanian, reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from
onomatopoeia), for example, ''mormăi, ţurţur, dârdâi'', and for expressions, like ''talmeş-balmeş, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, ţac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc'', or in more recent slang, ''trendy-flendy''.
Slavic languages
Russian language
Main articles: Reduplication in Russian language
The reduplication in
Russian language serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a
hyphenated or repeated
word (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to
shm-reduplication.
Turkish
In
Turkish, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being ''m'', and possibly missing) with ''m''. The effect is that the meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, ''tabak'' means "plate(s)", and ''tabak mabak'' then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied not only to nouns but to all kinds of words, as in ''yeşil meşil'' meaning "green, greenish, whatever".
Reduplication in Bantu Languages
Reduplication is a common phenomenon in
Bantu languages and is usually used to form a frequentive verb or for emphasis.
[4],
[5]
★ Example in
swahili piga is to strike, "pigapiga" means to strike repeatedly.
★ In Chichewa tambalalá is to stretch ones legs, tambalalá-tambalalá is to do so repeatedly
Popular names that have reduplication include
★
Bafana Bafana
★
Chipolopolo
★
Eric Djemba-Djemba
★
Lualua
★
Ngorongoro
Chinese
Adjective reduplication is common in
Standard Mandarin, typically denoting emphasis, less acute degree of the quality described, or an attempt at more indirect speech: ''xiaoxiao de'' 小小的 (small), ''chouchou de'' 臭臭的 (smelly). In case of adjectives composed of two characters (morphemes), each character is reduplicated separately: ''piaoliang'' 漂亮 (beautiful) reduplicates as ''piaopiaoliangliang'' 漂漂亮亮.
Verb reduplication is also common in Standard Mandarin, conveying the meaning of informal and temporary character of the action. It is often used in imperative expressions, in which it lessens the degree of imperativity: ''zuozuo'' 坐坐 (sit (for a while)), ''dengdeng'' 等等 (wait (for a while)). Compound verbs are reduplicated as a whole word: ''xiuxixiuxi'' 休息休息 (rest (for a while)).
Noun reduplication is found in the southwestern dialect of
Mandarin, which is nearly absent in
standard Mandarin (Guoyu). For instance, in
Sichuan, ''baobao'' 包包 (handbag) is used whereas Beijing and Guoyu use ''bao'r'' 包儿. However, there are few nouns that can be reduplicated in Standard Mandarin, and reduplication denotes generalisation and uniformity: ''ren'' 人 (human being) and ''renren'' 人人 (everybody (in general, in common)), ''jiajiahuhu'' 家家户户 (every household (uniformly)) - in the latter ''jia'' and ''hu'' additionaly duplicate the meaning of ''household'', which is a common way of creating compound words in Chinese.
Japanese
A small number of native
Japanese nouns have
collective forms produced by reduplication (possibly with
rendaku). This formation is not
productive and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Mandarin, the meaning is not that of a true
plural, but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object.
Japanese also contains a large number of
mimetic words formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only
onomatopoeia, but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states.
Nepalese
A number of
Nepalese nouns are formed by reduplication. As in other languages, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a set of the same or related objects, often in a particular situation.
For example, "rangi changi"
★ describes an object that is extremely or vividly colorful, like a crazy mix of colors and/or patterns, perhaps dizzying to the eye. The phrase "hina mina" means "scattered," like a large collection of objects spilled (or scampering, as in small animals) in all different directions. The basic Nepalese word for food, "khana" becomes "khana sana" to refer to the broad generality of anything served at a meal. Likewise, "chiya" or tea (conventionally made with milk and sugar) becomes "chiya siya": tea and snacks (such as biscuits or cookies).
★ Please note, these examples of Nepalese words are spelled with a simplified Latin transliteration only, not as exact spellings.
Malay and Indonesian
In
Malay and
Indonesian, reduplication of a noun indicates the
plural. For example, ''buku'', meaning "book", when reduplicated as ''buku-buku'' (also written as ''buku
2'') means "books". Another example is ''anak'' for child and 'anak-anak' for children.
Reduplication of an adjective is also used to indicate plurality of the corresponding noun. For example: "Rumah di sini besar" means "The house here is big", while "Rumah di sini besar-besar" means "The houses here are big".
Farsi (Persian)
Reduplication is a very common practice in Farsi, to the extent that there are jokes about it. Reduplication is particularly common in the city of Shiraz (SW of the country). One can further categorize the reduplicative words into "True" and "Quasi" ones. In true reduplicative words, both words are actually real words and have meaning in the language in which it is used. In quasi-reduplicative words, at least one of the words does not have a meaning. Some examples of true reduplicative words in Farsi are (using the best my knowledge in phonetics): "Khert-o-Pert" (Odds and ends); "Chert-o-Pert" (Nonsense); "Charand-o-Parand" (animals and birds); "Aab-o-Taab" (much detail). Among the quasi-reduplicative words are "Zan-o-man" (wife); "Daava-Maava" (Argument); "Tala-mala" (jewelry); and "Dari-Vari" (none-sense talk).
Khmer
Khmer uses reduplication for several purposes, including emphasis and pluralization. Khmer also uses a form of reduplication known as "synonym compounding", in which two phonologically distinct words with similar or identical meanings are combined, either to form the same term or to form a new term altogther.
Reduplicated babbling
During the period 25-50 weeks after birth, all typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical
babbling (Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant vowel combinations, such as 'nanana' or 'didididi'. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand banging and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less of a structure.
See also
★
Ideophone
★
Augment
★
Amredita
★
Language acquisition
★
Syntactic doubling
★ For an example of a language with many types of reduplication see:
St'at'imcets language#Reduplication.
External links
★
No Hocus-Pocus Here!: Repeating a word or a syllable
★
Reduplication (Lexicon of Linguistics)
★
What is reduplication? (SIL)
★
Echo-Word Reduplication Lexicon
★
Exhaustive list of reduplications in English
★
List of contrastive focus reduplications in English
Bibliography
★ Abraham, Roy. (1964). ''Somali-English dictionary''. London, England: University of London Press.
★ Albright, Adam. (2002). A restricted model of UR discovery: Evidence from Lakhota. (Draft version).
★ Alderete, John; Benua, Laura; Gnanadesikan, Amalia E.; Beckman, Jill N.; McCarthy, John J.; and Urbanczyk, Suzanne. (1999). Reduplication with fixed segmentism. ''Linguistic Inquiry'', ''30'', 327-364. (Online version ROA 226-1097 available at http://roa.rutgers.edu/view.php3?id=561).
★ Broselow, Ellen; and McCarthy, John J. (1984). A theory of internal reduplication. ''The linguistic review'', ''3'', 25-88.
★ Cooper, William E.; and Ross, "Háj" John R. (1975). World order. In R. E. Grossman, L. J. San, and T. J. Vance (Eds.), ''Papers from the parasession on functionalism'' (pp. 63-111). Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society.
★ Dayley, Jon P. (1985). ''Tzutujil grammar''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
★ Diffloth, Gérald. (1973). Expressives in Semai. In P. N. Jenner, L. C. Thompson, and S. Starsota (Eds.), ''Austroasiatic studies part I'' (pp. 249-264). University Press of Hawaii.
★ Fabricius, Anne H. (2006). ''A comparative survey of reduplication in Australian languages''. LINCOM Studies in Australian Languages (No. 03). Lincom. ISBN 3-89586-531-1.
★ Haugen, Jason D. (forthcoming). Reduplicative allomorphy and language prehistory in Uto-Aztecan. (Paper presented at Graz Reduplication Conference 2002, November 3-6).
★ Healey, Phyllis M. (1960). ''An Agta grammar''. Manila: The Institute of National Language and The Summer Institute of Linguistics.
★ Hurch, Bernhard (Ed.). (2005). ''Studies on reduplication''. Empirical approaches to language typology (No. 28). Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-018119-3.
★ Inkelas, Sharon; & Zoll, Cheryl. (2005). ''Reduplication: Doubling in morphology''. Cambridge studies in linguistics (No. 106). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80649-6.
★ Key, Harold. (1965). Some semantic functions of reduplication in various languages. ''Anthropological Linguistics'', ''7'' (3), 88-101.
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1. The Malay Spelling Reform, Asmah Haji Omar, (Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, 1989-2 pp.9-13 later designated J11)
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