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:''For the university go to Ramon Llull University.''

'Ramon Llull' (1232^[1] – June 29, 1315) (sometimes 'Raymond Lully', 'Raymond Lull', in Latin 'Raimundus' or 'Raymundus Lullus', or in Spanish 'Raimundo Lulio') was a Majorcan writer and philosopher born into a wealthy family in Palma, Majorca, in the Balearic Islands, then part of the Crown of Aragon, now part of Spain. He wrote the first major work of Catalan language literature. Recently surfaced manuscripts show him to have anticipated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory. He is sometimes considered a pioneer of computation theory, especially given his influence on Leibniz.

Contents

Early life

''Ars generalis ultima'' (''Ars Magna'')

First mission

Second mission

Third mission and death

Reputation after death

Mysticism

Mathematics and statistics

Other recent coverage

Works

Bibliography

Notes

External links

Early life

Llull was well educated, and became the tutor of James II of Aragon. He wrote in Latin, Catalan, Occitan and Arabic. In 1265 he had a religious epiphany, and became a tertiary Franciscan. His first major work ''Art Abreujada d 'Atrobar Veritat'' (''The Art of Finding Truth'') was written in Catalan and then translated into Latin. He wrote treatises on alchemy and botany, ''Ars Magna'', and ''Llibre de meravelles''. He wrote the romantic novel ''Blanquerna'', the first major work of literature written in Catalan, and perhaps the first European novel. Llull pressed for the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Spain for the purpose of converting Muslims to Christianity.
Schopenhauer described Llull's conversion, as recorded in Johann Jakob Brucker's ''Critical History of Philosophy'', Book IV, Part I, page 10. "Hence men who have led a very adventurous life under the pressure of passions, men such as kings, heroes, or adventurers, have often been seen suddenly to change, resort to resignation and penance, and become hermits and monks. To this class belong all genuine accounts of conversion, for instance, that of Raymond Lull, who had long wooed a beautiful woman, was at last admitted to her chamber, and was looking forward to the fulfillment of all his desires, when, opening her dress, she showed him her bosom terribly eaten away with cancer. From that moment, as if he had looked into hell, he was converted; leaving the court of the King of Majorca, he went into the wilderness to do penance" (''The World as Will and Representation'', Vol. I, § 68). He became a hermit for the next nine years.

''Ars generalis ultima'' (''Ars Magna'')

Around 1275, Llull designed a method, which he first published in full in his ''Ars generalis ultima'' or ''Ars magna'' (the "The Ultimate General Art", published in 1305), of combining religious and philosophical attributes selected from a number of lists. It is believed that Llull's inspiration for the ''Ars magna'' came from observing Arab astrologers use a device called a zairja.
It was intended as a debating tool for winning Muslims to the Christian faith through logic and reason. Through his detailed analytical efforts, Llull built an in-depth theological reference by which a reader could enter in an argument or question about the Christian faith. The reader would then turn to the appropriate index and page to find the correct answer.
Llull also invented numerous 'machines' for the purpose. One method is now called the ''Lullian Circle'', each of which consisted of two or more paper discs inscribed with alphabetical letters or symbols that referred to lists of attributes. The discs could be rotated individually to generate a large number of combinations of ideas. A number of terms, or symbols relating to those terms, were laid around the full circumference of the circle. They were then repeated on an inner circle which could be rotated. These combinations were said to show all possible truth about the subject of the circle. Llull based this on the notion that there were a limited number of basic, undeniable truths in all fields of knowledge, and that we could understand everything about these fields of knowledge by studying combinations of these elemental truths.
The method was an early attempt to use logical means to produce knowledge. Llull hoped to show that Christian doctrines could be obtained artificially from a fixed set of preliminary ideas. For example, one of the tables listed the attributes of God: goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth and glory. Llull knew that all believers in the monotheistic religions - whether Jews, Muslims or Christians - would agree with these attributes, giving him a firm platform from which to argue.
The idea was developed further by Giordano Bruno in the 16th century, and by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century for investigations into the philosophy of science. Leibniz gave Llull's idea the name ''ars combinatoria'', by which it is now often known. Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science.
There is an episode in Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels'' (II:III:V; 1721), where the hero is shown a mechanical engine that generates knowledge by combining words at random. Swift does not mention Llull by name, but that passage can only be a parody of his method.
Llull was vocally opposed by the Grand Inquisitor of Aragon, Nicolau Aymerich. As a result, Pope Gregory XI banned some of his writings.

First mission

Llull traveled through Europe to interest popes, kings and princes in establishing special colleges to prepare future missionaries to convert the 'infidels' of Tunis to Christianity. In 1285, he embarked on his first mission to North Africa but was violently expelled from Tunis. On his return, Llull began to preach for a unification of the three monotheistic faiths--Judaism, Christianity and Islam--which together, he hoped, would be able to defeat the Asian invaders then threatening Europe and the Middle East.
In spite of what is generally believed, Llull, although influenced by the doctrine of St. Francis Assisi--but also by the religious style of the Dominicans--never entered the Franciscan Order to become a priest. Instead, Llull became a Secular Franciscan and remained a lay person during all his life.
In 1297 Llull met Duns Scotus, after which he was given the nickname ''Doctor Illuminatus''.

Second mission

Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1304, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.

Third mission and death

In the early 14th century, Llull visited North Africa on a reconnaissance mission for a crusade being planned by the Pope. He returned in 1308, reporting that the conquest should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. Llull finally achieved his goal of linguistic education at major universities in 1311 when the Council of Vienne ordered the creation of chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean at the universities of Bologna, Oxford, Paris and Salamanca. At the age of 79, in 1314, Raymond traveled again to North Africa and an angry crowd of Muslims stoned him in the city of Bougie or Béjaïa in present-day northern Algeria. Genoese merchants took him back to Mallorca where he died at home in Palma the next year.

Reputation after death

Posthumously, Llull became celebrated as a great alchemist, although he had been opposed to occult beliefs. At one time he was credited with discovering ether, in about 1275, although there is no contemporary evidence for this.
Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were set up at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. His rationalistic mysticism was formally condemned by Pope Gregory XI in 1376 and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV.
Nonetheless, the Roman Catholic Church has given Llull the status of a Blessed (Bl. Ramon Lull), in that his cult was confirmed in 1858 by Pope Pius IX, although he has not been canonized. He has also been called 'Doctor Illuminatus', but is not one of the 33 Doctors of the Church.
He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as ''la llengua de Llull'', as other languages might be referred to as ''la langue de Molière'' (French) or ''la lengua de Cervantes'' (Castilian).
The logo of the Spanish ''Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas'' ("Higher Council of Scientific Research") is Llull's Tree of Science. Ramon Llull University, a private university established in Barcelona in 1990, is named for the philosopher.

Mysticism

Ramon Llull also had a strong mystical side, instantiated in his work ''The Book of the Lover and His Beloved'', written in order to illuminate weary, sterile souls. He was also interested in, and wrote about, astrology.

Mathematics and statistics

With the 2001 discovery of his lost manuscripts ''Ars notandi'', ''Ars eleccionis'', and ''Alia ars eleccionis'', Llull is given credit for discovering the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, which Jean-Charles de Borda and Marquis de Condorcet independently discovered centuries later. ^[2] The terms Llull winner and Llull loser are ideas in contemporary voting systems studies that are named in honor of Llull. Also, Llull is recognized as pioneer of computation theory, especially due to his great influence on Gottfried Leibniz.

Other recent coverage

Martin Gardner has written extensively about Llull. His analyses can be found in ''Logic Machines and Diagrams'' and ''Science - Good, Bad and Bogus''.
Llull, now going under the name 'Cole Hawlings' and revealed to be immortal is a major character in The Box of Delights, the celebrated Children's novel by poet John Masefield. In the BBC TV adaptation of 1984 he was played by Patrick Troughton.
In the DC comic book series ''The Sandman,'' one of the characters, a writer named Richard Madoc, puts forth the idea of writing a story about Paracelsus and Raymond Lulli being the same person. This is, of course, impossible, given that they lived a century or more apart.

Works

Llull is known to have written at least 265 works, including:

★ ''The Book of the Lover and the Beloved''

★ ''Blanquerna'' (a novel; 1283) [1]

★ ''Desconort'' (on the superiority of reason)

★ ''Tree of Science'' (1295)

★ ''Tractatus novus de astronomia''

★ ''Ars Magna'' (''The Great Art'') (1305) or ''Ars Generalis Ultima'' (''The Ultimate General Art'')

★ ''Ars Brevis'' (''The Short Art''; an abbreviated version of the ''Ars Magna'')

★ ''Llibre de meravelles''

★ ''Practica compendiosa''

★ ''Liber de Lumine'' (''The Book of Light'')

★ ''Ars Infusa'' (''The Inspired Art'')

★ ''Book of Propositions''

★ ''Liber Chaos'' (''The Book of Chaos'')

★ ''Book of the Seven Planets''

★ ''Liber Proverbiorum'' (''Book of Proverbs'')

★ ''Book on the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit''

★ ''Ars electionis'' [2] (on voting)

★ ''Artifitium electionis personarum'' [3] (on voting)

★ ''Ars notatoria''

★ ''Introductoria Artis demonstrativae''

★ ''Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men''

★ ''Libre qui es de l'ordre de cavalleria'' (''The Book of the Order of Chivalry'' written between 1279-1283)
About another 400 works are doubtfully or spuriously attributed to him.

Bibliography

★ Barber, William Theodore Aquila, ''Raymond Lull, the illuminated doctor : a study in mediaeval missions'', London : C.H. Kelly, 1903.

★ Zwemer, Samuel Marinus, ''Raymund Lull, first missionary to the Moslems'', New York and London : Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1902.

★ Zwemer, Samuel Marinus, ''Raymund Lull: First Missionary to the Moslems'' Diggory Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1846853012

Notes

1. Born 1232 per Mark D. Johnston in ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. London: Routledge, 1998. Older sources (such as versions of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' at least up to 1955, give 1235; the current ''Britannica'' gives 1232/33.
2. Llull's writings on electoral systems, G. Hägele and F. Pukelsheim, , , Studia Lulliana, 2001

External links

★ Site with fulltexts of Raymond Lull's books. Also music based on Lullian arts.

★ English translations of lullian works, freeware version of Ars Magna

★ Ramon Llull Database, University of Barcelona

★ Patron Saints Index

★ ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' article

★ Ramon Llull (Lletra, espai virtual de literatura catalana) (in Catalan)

★ Càtedra Ramon Llull (in Catalan)

★ Blessed Raymond Lull

★ The Ultimate General Art