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'''Purana''' (
Sanskrit: पुराण '', meaning "belonging to ancient or olden times") is the name of an ancient
Indian genre (or a group of related genres) of
Hindu or
Jain literature (as distinct from
oral tradition). Its general themes are history,
tradition, philosophy, and
religion. While the major puranas are in
Sanskrit, puranas exist in other Indian languages also. Puranas are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.
An early reference to Purana in its present sense can be traced to the
Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2), in which the sage Narada refers to ''.'' Thus the Chandogya Upanishad ascribes to the Puranas, together with
Itihas, the status of a fifth Veda, or
Panchama Veda. The Rgveda mentions Purana many times, though some say that there the meaning is "belonging to ancient times."
There are many texts designated as 'Purana'. The most important are:
★ ''s'' and '', the main Puranic corpus
★ ''s'', scriptures usually extolling the virtues of a certain
Hindu temple. They narrate stories of the temple's creation and spiritual history.
★ '' - Scriptures that deal with the origin and legends of a particular
caste.
The ''s'' are dated philologically to between roughly the
3rd and the
12th centuries,
[1] the bulk of the texts likely originating in the
Gupta period (320-500 CE), with incremental additions well into medieval times.
[2]
According to Hindu tradition, the Puranas were composed by
Vyasa at the end of
Dvapara Yuga.
In the opinion of Gavin Flood
2, the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults:
Although these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations of worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particular vision, whether it be focused on , , or , or, indeed, any number of deities.
Classification and scope
The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus.
Traditionally
[3] they are said to narrate five subjects, called '' ("five distinguishing marks"), which are:
# Sarga - The creation of the universe.
# Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
# Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.
# Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
# Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.
Most Mahapuranas and Upapuranas deal with these subject matters, although the bulk of their text consists of historical and religious narratives. Some scholars have suggested that these 'distinguishing marks' are shared by other traditional religious scriptures of the world (e.g. the
Bible).
Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts, , Velcheru Narayana, Rao, State University of New York Press, 1993,
A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (
Shiva,
Vishnu or
Krishna,
Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient. Most use an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts in their narration, from
Bhakti to
Samkhya. Their composition marks the emergence of
Vaishnavism and
Shaivism, the division that is still prevalent in contemporary
Hinduism.
The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a travelling brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a
Bhakti perspective).
Mahapuranas
Traditionally it is said that there are 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas. Each Mahapurana lists eighteen canonical puranas, but the contents of each list vary reflecting differences in time and place. Combining the lists, Dimmitt and van Buitenen
[4] have collated twenty names:
#
Agni (15,400 verses)
#
Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the ''Puranas.''
[5] It is concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of Vishnu's
Avataras. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and, probably for the first time in Sanskrit, tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many
Bhakti movements.
[6]
#
Bhavishya (14,500 verses)
#
Brahma (24,000 verses)
#
Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes
Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)
#
Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
#
Garuda (19,000 verses)
#
Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered ''
itihāsa'')
#
Kurma (17,000 verses)
#
Linga (11,000 verses)
#
Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes
Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for
Shaktas)
#
Matsya (14,000 verses)
#
Narada (25,000 verses)
#
Padma (55,000 verses)
#
Shiva (24,000 verses)
#
Skanda (81,100 verses), probably the longest of all, containing parables, legends and stories, with multiple versions and recensions. Many untraced quotes from a Purana are conveniently attributed to this Purana.
[7]
#
Vamana (10,000 verses)
#
Varaha (10,000 verses)
#
Vayu (24,000 verses)
#
Vishnu (23,000 verses)
Classification by trimurti
The Mahapuranas are also classified by the three aspects of
Trimurti,
★
Brahma Puranas:
Brahma Purana,
Brahmānda Purana,
Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
Mārkandeya Purana,
Bhavishya Purana,
★
Vishnu Puranas:
Vishnu Purana,
Bhagavata Purana,
Nāradeya Purana,
Garuda Purana,
Padma Purana,
Varaha Purana,
Vāmana Purana,
Kūrma Purana,
Matsya Purana
★
Shiva Puranas:
Shiva Purana,
Linga Purana,
Skanda Purana,
Agni Purana,
Vāyu Purana
Classification by guna
A reference from the Puranas themselves classifies the various Puranic texts in accordance with ''
the three gunas'' (qualities of material nature) --
goodness,
passion and
ignorance. Of the Mahapuranas it is said that six are more effective for readers in the guna of goodness, six for those in the guna of passion, and six to people in the guna of ignorance. According to the ''Padma Purana,''
[8] these are the Mahapuranas and their corresponding qualities:
★
Sattva ("truth; purity"):
Vishnu Purana,
Bhagavata Purana,
Naradeya Purana,
Garuda Purana,
Padma Purana,
Varaha Purana
★
Rajas ("dimness; passion"):
Brahmanda Purana,
Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
Markandeya Purana,
Bhavishya Purana,
Vamana Purana,
Brahma Purana
★
Tamas ("darkness; ignorance":
Matsya Purana,
Kurma purana,
Linga Purana,
Shiva Purana,
Skanda Purana,
Agni Purana
A page from the Bhagavatapurana.
Varahapurana.
Authorship, name and chronology
Traditionally, the Puranas are said to have been composed by the sage
Vyasa, the narrator of the
Mahabharata epic. Vyasa in Sanskrit means 'Divider,' and some scholars therefore take this simply as a term meaning '
Editor'.
[9] The texts, these scholars say, were probably written all over India and are being rewritten and reedited to the present day all over the world.
The term ''purana,'' which means "belonging to ancient times" or "an ancient tale or legend", appears in the
Vedas (e.g.
Atharvaveda 11.7.24
[10] [11] and the
Satapatha Brahmana 11.5.6.8. and 13.4.3.13.
11 SBE Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369). And the term ''
itihasa purana,'' "account of ancient times", occurs in the
Chandogya Upanishad.
[12] and
Nirukta.
[13] and the
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, where the text thus referred to is considered the "fifth Veda."
[14]
The specific corpus of the ''Mahapuranas,'' as opposed to generic ''purana'' "ancient tale", is sometimes estimated by Western scholars to date to the
Early Middle Ages, or to roughly between the fifth and tenth centuries, but to contain older material; according to Pargiter, an "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas.
10
Puranic genealogies
The Puranas also lay emphasis on keeping a record of genealogies. Thus the Vayu Purana says: "As seen by good people in the ancient times the suta's duty was to preserve the genealogies of gods, rsis and glorious kings and the traditions of great men." (Vayu P. 1. 31-2)
The Puranic genealogies add up to fantastic time depths see e.g.
F.E. Pargiter (1922)
10 and Pargiter (1979)
[15] [16]
Pargiter has argued that in the Puranas the Puranic Krta Yuga
[17] "ended with the destruction of the Haihayas [by Rama Jamadagnya]; the Treta began approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasarathi's destruction of the Raksasas; and the Dvapara began with his reinstatement at Ayodhya and ended with the Bharata battle".
[18]
The Puranas themselves state that these lists are incomplete.
10 [Matsya Purana 49.72; Kak 1994 The astronomical code of the Rgveda, p.51]
In
Arrian's
Indica,
Megasthenes is quoted as stating that the Indians counted from
Shiva (
Dionysos) to
Chandragupta Maurya (Sandracottus) "a hundred and fifty-three kings over six thousand and forty-three years."
[19] The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (4.6.), ca. 8th century BCE, mentions 57 links in the
Guru-
Parampara ("succession of teachers"). This would mean that this Guru-Parampara would go back about 1400 years, although the accuracy of this list is disputed.
[20] The list of kings in
Kalhana's
Rajatarangini goes back to the 19th century BCE.
[21]
The Puranic genealogies indicate that Manu Vaivasvata lived 95 generations before the Bharata War.
[22]
Upapuranas
The corpus of Upapuranas is less clearly defined. Some Upapuranas are: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna,
Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata,
Ganesa,
Mudgala, and Hamsa.
[23] The
Ganesa and
Mudgala Puranas are sectarian Upapuranas devoted to Ganesha..
[ ]
Most of these have not been critically edited yet and are available mostly through devotional publications, in multiple versions and recensions.
The
Devi-Bhagavata Purana extols the virtues of the goddess
Durga as the supreme being. It has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for
Devi worshipers.
[24]
Other Hindu Puranas
Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts narrates the virtues and stories connected with a certain temple or shrine (the word 'Sthala' means 'Place' in Sanskrit). There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in
vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Most claim to have a Sanskrit origin, and some of the Sanskrit versions also appear in a Mahapurana or an Upapurana. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by
David Dean Shulman.
[25]
Kula Puranas
These are mostly caste-focused Puranas (the word 'Kula' means 'Family' or 'Tribe' in Sanskrit). They deal with a caste's origin myth, stories and legends. The caste purana is an important source for caste identity and is usually contested by other, rival, castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and might at times be oral.
[26]
This subgenre has been little researched. But it is rather well documented in the caste section of the
British Census of India Report and the various
Gazzeteers.
[27]
Other
There are many other narratives that go by the name of Purana. Most are written in vernaculars and are usually concerned with mythical and historical narrations. These texts, such as the Padma Purana of Bengal and Assam (narrating the story of the goddess
Manasā), are vast in number and scattered all over the
Indian subcontinent.
[28]
Jain and Buddhist Puranas
There are many
Jain Puranas, dealing with Jain myths, history and legends.
[29]
[30] Studies and English translations of this particular genre are meagre. The best known of them is the
Mahapurana of
Acharya Jinasena. The Jain Puranas form a major part of the early
Kannada literature.
Swayambhu Purana, a Buddhist Purana, is major source of the history of the Kathmandu valley. Arguably, some
Buddhist Mahāyāna Sūtras seem to have some characteristics of Puranas.
Footnotes
1. Nagendra Kumar Singh (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, (1997) ISBN 8174881689, p. 2324
2.
An Introduction to Hinduism, , Gavin, Flood, Cambridge University Press, 1996,
3. ''Matsya Purana'' 53.65
4.
Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskirt Puranas, , Cornelia, Dimmitt, Temple University Press, ,
5. ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.'' Sir Monier Monier-Williams. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1899. Page 752, column 3, under the entry ''Bhagavata.''
6. ''Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India'' - Friedhelm Hardy. ISBN 0-19-564916-8
7.
Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts, , , , State University of New York Press, 1993,
8. ''Padma Purana, Uttara-khanda,'' 236.18-21
9.
Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts, , , , State University of New York Press, 1993,
10.
Ancient Indian historical tradition, , F E, Pargiter, Motilal Banarasidass, ,
11. ; Moghe 1997:249
12. 3.4.1-2, 7.1.2-4, 7.2.1, 7.7.1 Moghe 1997:160,249
13. Nirukta 1.16, 12.10. See Moghe 1997:161
14. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 2.4.10, 4.1.2, 4.5.11. Satapatha Brahmana (SBE, Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369). Moghe 1997:160,249
15. Pargiter 1979
16. P.L. Bhargava 1971, India in the Vedic Age, Lucknow: Upper India Publishing; Talageri 1993, 2000; Subhash Kak, 1994, The astronomical code of the Rgveda
17. In Vayu Purana 32, the four Yugas are divided into 4800, 3600, 2400 and 1200 years.
18. Pargiter 1922:177
19. Pliny: Naturalis Historia 6:59; Arrian: Indica 9:9
20. (see Klaus Klostermaier 1989 and Arvind Sharma 1995)
21. Elst 1999, with reference to Bernard Sergent
22. R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.273
23. These have been studied by the Bengali scholar R. C. Hazra. See his ''Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. I'', Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1958. ''Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. II'', Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1979. ''Studies in Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs'', Delhi, Banarsidass, 1975. More recently they have been studied by Ludo Rocher in ''The Puranas'' - A History of Indian Literature. Vol. II, fasc. 3, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986.
24. ''The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa,'' Brwon Mackenzie. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7
25. ''Tamil Temple Myths'' - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition - David Dean Shulman. ISBN 0-691-06415-6
26. 'Kulapuranas' - Pulikonda Subbachary in ''Folklore in Modern India,'' edited by Jawaharlal Handoo, p. 125-142. ISBN 81-7342-055-6
27. See for example ''Castes and Tribes of Southern India'' Vols I-V, Thurston Edgar. Cosmo Publication, Delhi.
28. `Verbal Narratives: Performance and Gender of the Padma Purana', by T.N. Sankaranarayana in ''Chanted Narratives'' - The Katha Vachana Tradition, Edited by Molly Kaushal, p. 225-234. ISBN 81-246-0182-8
29.
Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts, , Padmanabh S., Jaini, State University of New York Press, 1993,
30.
Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts, , John E., Cort, , 1993,
References
★ Bhargava, P.L. 1971. ''India in the Vedic Age''. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.
★ Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J.A.B. van Buitenen. ''Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978. Pages 4 to 5.
★
★
An Introduction to Hinduism, , Gavin, Flood, Cambridge University Press, 1996,
★ Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor). ''Folklore in Modern India''. ISBN 81-7342-055-6
★ Hardy, Friedhelm. ''Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India''. ISBN 0-19-564916-8
★ Kaushal, Molly (editor). ''Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition''. ISBN 81-246-0182-8
★ Mackenzie, Brwon. ''The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa''. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7
★
Majumdar, R. C. and
Pusalker, A. D. (editors): ''The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 (esp. ch. XIV - XV by A. D. Pusalker)
★ Moghe, S. G. (editor). ''Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature''. 1997, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0075-9
★
A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, , Monier, Monier-Williams, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ,
★ Pargiter, F.E. 1922. ''Ancient Indian Historical Tradition''. London. Oxford University Press.
★ Shulman, David Dean. ''Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition''. ISBN 0-691-06415-6
★
Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult, , Anita Raina, Thapan, Manohar Publishers, 1997,
★ Thurston Edgar. ''Castes and Tribes of Southern India'' (Vols I-V). Cosmo Publication, Delhi.
External links
★
The Puranas (bharatadesam.com)
;Texts
★
GRETIL (uni-goettingen.de)
★
collection of scanned Devanagari editions
;Translations
★
Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam Full text of the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa,'' with the original Sanskrit, word-for-word meanings, translation, and commentary.
★
The Vishnu Purana Full text of the H.H. Wilson translation at sacred-texts.com
;Synopses
★
Contents of 18 Puranas and a list of Upapuranas (lesser Puranas) (a Java applet)
★
Extensive synopsis of several Maha Puranas
★
Synopsis of Puranas at Urday.com
★
Agni Purana - A synopsis
★
Garuda Purana extensive extract
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