(Redirected from Psychoactive)
An assortment of psychoactive drugs
A 'psychoactive drug' or 'psychotropic substance' is a
chemical substance that acts primarily upon the
central nervous system where it alters
brain function, resulting in temporary changes in
perception,
mood,
consciousness and
behavior. These drugs may be used
recreationally to purposefully alter one's
consciousness, as
entheogens for ritual or spiritual purposes, or therapeutically as
medication.
Because psychoactive substances affect the brain and bring about subjective changes in mood, behavior and perception that the user may find pleasant, many psychoactive substances are
abused, that is, used outside of the guidance of a medical professional and for reasons other than what they were originally intended for. With sustained use,
physical dependence may develop, making the cycle of abuse even more difficult to interrupt.
Drug rehabilitation can involve a combination of
psychotherapy, support groups and even other psychoactive substances to break the cycle of dependency.
In part because of this potential for abuse and dependency, the ethics of drug use are the subject of a continuing philosophical debate. Many governments worldwide have placed restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to control drug abuse.
History
Drug use is a practice that dates to
prehistoric times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.
[1] While medicinal use seems to have played a very large role, it has been suggested that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire.
[2] Others suggest that marketing, availability or the pressures of modern life are why humans use so many psychoactives in their daily lives. However, the long history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicates that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.
[3]
This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming
catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.
[4] Biology suggests an evolutionary connection between psychoactive plants and animals, as to why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.
[5]
The 20th century has seen governments initially responding to many drugs by banning them and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this is the
Prohibition era in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have the negative effects of their illicit drug use minimized. This can go hand-in-hand with supply reduction strategies by law-enforcement agencies.
Uses of psychoactive substances
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, both legal and illicit.
Anesthesia
General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on patients to block pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, which allows patients to undergo medical procedures like
surgery without physical pain or emotional trauma.
[6] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the
GABA and
NMDA systems. For example,
halothane is a GABA agonist,
[7] and
ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist.
[8]
Painkillers
Aspirin
Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to
manage pain. As the subjective experience of pain is regulated by
endorphins, neurochemicals that are
endogenous opioids, pain can be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system. This class of drugs includes
narcotics, like
morphine and
codeine,
[9] and also
NSAID's such as
aspirin and
paracetamol.
Psychiatric medications
Psychiatric medications are prescribed for the management of
mental and emotional disorders. There are 6 major classes of psychiatric medications:
★
Antidepressants, which are used to treat disparate disorders such as
clinical depression,
dysthymia,
anxiety, and
eating disorders and
affect dysregulation, colloquially termed 'mood stabilization' in
borderline personality disorder.
★
Stimulants, which are used to treat disorders such as
attention deficit disorder and
narcolepsy and to
suppress the appetite.
★
Antipsychotics, which are used to treat
psychoses such as
schizophrenia and
mania.
★
Mood stabilizers, which are used to treat
bipolar disorder and
schizoaffective disorder.
★
Anxiolytics, which are used to treat
anxiety disorders.
★
Depressants, which are used as
hypnotics,
sedatives, and
anesthetics.
Recreational drugs
Many psychoactive substances are used/abused for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
★
Stimulants, which elevate the
central nervous system. These are used recreationally for their
euphoric and
performance-enhancing effects.
★
Hallucinogens, which induce perceptual and cognitive distortions.
★
Hypnotics, which are used recreationally to because they induce
inebriation.
★
Analgesics, which are used recreationally because of their
euphoric effects.
Examples include
caffeine,
alcohol,
cocaine,
LSD, and
cannabis.
[10]
In many cultures, possessing or having used recreational drugs is seen as a
status symbol. Recreational drugs, especially those known as
club drugs, are seen as status symbols at social events such as at
nightclubs and parties.
[11] This is true of many cultures throughout history; drugs have been viewed as status symbols since ancient times. For example, in
ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.
[12]
Ritual and spiritual use
Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use.
Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used
mescaline-containing
peyote cacti for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years.
[13] The
muscimol-containing
amanita mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.
[14] Various other hallucinogens, including
jimsonweed,
psilocybin mushrooms, and
cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies for centuries.
[15] There is speculation that hallucinogenic mushrooms and cacti greatly influenced the major religions of India, North and South America, the Middle East, and Europe, including
Christianity.
15
The use of hallucinogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the
counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of
Timothy Leary, new religious movements began to use
LSD and other hallucinogens as
sacraments.
[16] However, in the United States, the use of hallucinogens for ritual purposes is legal only for members of the
Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute
peyote.
[17]
Administration
For a substance to be psychoactive, it must cross the
blood-brain barrier so it can affect neurochemical function. Psychoactive drugs are
administered in several different ways. In medicine, most psychiatric drugs, such as
fluoxetine and
oxycodone, are
ingested orally in
tablet or
capsule form. However, certain medical psychoactives are administered via
inhalation,
injection, or rectal
suppository/
enema. Recreational drugs can be administered in several additional ways that are not common in medicine. Certain drugs, such as
alcohol and
caffeine, are ingested in beverage form;
nicotine and
THC are often
smoked;
peyote and
psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and certain crystalline drugs such as
cocaine and
MDMA (ecstasy) are often
insufflated. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.
[18]
Effects
Illustration of the major elements of
neurotransmission. Depending on its method of action, a psychoactive substance may block the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (
dendrite), or block reuptake or affect neurotransmitter synthesis in the pre-synaptic neuron (
axon).
Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more
neurotransmitter or
neuroreceptor in the brain.
Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called
agonists. They act by increasing the
synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters or reducing its
reuptake from the
synapses. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called
antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.
[19]
Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of
neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the
homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug. Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter increases the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter, and the receptors themselves become more sensitive. This is called
sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter causes a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called
desensitization or
tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to underlie addiction.
[20]
Affected neurotransmitter systems
The following is a classification of notable drugs by their primary effects on their respective neurotransmitters or receptors. However, it should be noted that most drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.
[21]
| Neurotransmitter/receptor | Classification | ''Examples'' |
|---|
| Serotonin | Serotonin receptor agonists | ''LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT'' |
| Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) | ''fluoxetine, sertraline'' |
| Serotonin releasers | ''MDMA'' (ecstasy) |
GABA | GABA reuptake inhibitors | ''tiagabine |
| GABA receptor agonists | ''ethanol, barbiturates, diazepam, muscimol, ibotenic acid'' |
| GABA antagonists | ''thujone, bicuculline'' |
| Opioid receptor | μ-opioid receptor agonists | ''morphine, heroin, oxycodone'' |
| μ-opioid receptor inverse agonists | ''naloxone, naltrexone |
| κ-opioid receptor agonists | ''salvinorin A, butorphanol, nalbuphine'' |
Dopamine | Dopamine protein transporter blockers | ''cocaine'' |
| Dopamine receptor antagonists | ''haloperidol, droperidol'' |
| Monoamine oxidase MAO | Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) | ''phenelzine, iproniazid'' |
| bind to MAO protein transporter | ''amphetamine, methamphetamine'' |
| NMDA receptor | NMDA receptor antagonists | ''ketamine, PCP, DXM |
Norepinephrine | Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors | ''amoxapine, atomoxetine'' |
| Norepinephrine releasers | ''mianserin'' |
| Cannabinoid receptor | Cannabinoid receptor agonists | ''THC'' |
Acetylcholine | Cholinergics (acetylcholine agonists) | ''nicotine, piracetam'' |
| Anticholinergics (acetylcholine antagonists) | ''scopolamine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine'' |
Adenosine | Methlyxanthines (adenosine receptor antagonists[22]) | ''caffeine'' |
| AMPA receptor | AMPA receptor antagonists | ''kynurenic acid, NBQX'' |
| Melanocortin receptor | Melanocortin receptor agonists | ''bremelanotide |
Addiction
Heroin bottle
Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction. Addiction can be divided into two types:
psychological addiction, by which a user feels compelled to use a drug despite negative physical or societal consequence, and
physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid medically harmful
withdrawal.
[23] Not all drugs are physically addictive, but any activity that stimulates the brain's dopaminergic reward system — typically, any pleasurable activity
[24] — can lead to psychological addiction.
23 Drugs that are most likely to cause addiction are drugs that directly stimulate the dopaminergic system, like
cocaine and
amphetamines. Drugs that only indirectly stimulate the dopaminergic system, such as
psychedelics, are not as likely to be addictive.
Because so many consumers want to reduce or eliminate their own use of psychoactive drugs,
[25] many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in
drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success. Many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.
[26]
Common forms of
rehabilitation include
psychotherapy,
support groups and
pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological
withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox.
Methadone, itself an
opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for
heroin addiction. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using
psychedelics to treat and even cure
addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.
[27][28]
Legality and ethics
The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of history; the
Opium Wars and
Prohibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international
treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the
United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the
United States, the
USSR,
India, and the
United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight
recreational drug addiction by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.
[29] All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the
Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.
[30]
In the United States, the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are
over the counter and which are only available with a
prescription.
[31] However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The
Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.
[32] Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal
National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age.
[33] Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.
[34] Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.
[35][36][37]
In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning
over the counter psychoactive medications in
antiemetics and
antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as
antidepressants and
stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.
[38][39]
Recreational drugs are heavily regulated, an indication of widespread moral objection to recreational psychoactive drug use. However, critics believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal
autonomy and
freedom.
[40] In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be
unconstitutional.
[41] Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an
ongoing debate about drug prohibition.
See also
★
Contact high
★
Demand reduction
★
Drug
★
Drug addiction
★
Drug rehabilitation
★
Freedom of thought
★
Hard and soft drugs
★
Neuropsychopharmacology
★
Poly drug use
★
Psychedelic plants
★
Responsible drug use
★
The Yogurt Connection
References
1. Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World, Merlin, M.D, , , Economic Botany,
2. Intoxication: The Universal Drive for Mind-Altering Substances, Siegel, Ronald K, , , Park Street Press, Rochester, Vermont, 2005, ISBN 1-59477-069-7
3. The Natural Mind : A Revolutionary Approach to the Drug Problem (Revised edition), , Andrew, Weil, Houghton Mifflin, 2004, ISBN 0-618-46513-8
4. Animals And Psychedelics: The Natural World & The Instinct To Alter Consciousness, , Giorgio, Samorini, Park Street Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89281-986-3
5. Event Horizons of the Psyche Albert, David Bruce, Jr. (1993)
6. Medline Plus. Anesthesia. Accessed on July 16, 2007.
7. Effects of halothane on GABA(A) receptor kinetics: evidence for slowed agonist unbinding, Li X, Pearce RA, , , J. Neurosci., 2000
8. Quantitative studies on some antagonists of N-methyl D-aspartate in slices of rat cerebral cortex, Harrison N, Simmonds M, , , Br J Pharmacol, 1985
9. Analgesic effect and plasma concentrations of codeine and morphine after two dose levels of codeine following oral surgery, Quiding H, Lundqvist G, Boréus LO, Bondesson U, Ohrvik J, , , Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1993
10. Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the WHO. Retrieved on July 5, 2007.
11. Drug identity change processes, race, and gender. III. Macrolevel opportunity concepts, Anderson TL, , , Substance use & misuse, 1998
12. Nymphaea cults in ancient Egypt and the New World: a lesson in empirical pharmacology, Bertol E, Fineschi V, Karch S, Mari F, Riezzo I, , , Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 2004
13. Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas, El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG, , , Journal of ethnopharmacology, 2005
14. Drug addiction. Part I. Psychoactive substances in the past and presence, Vetulani J, , , Polish journal of pharmacology, 2001
15. Hall, Andy. Entheogens and the Origins of Religion. Retrieved on May 13, 2007.
16. History, culture and subjective experience: an exploration of the social bases of drug-induced experiences, Becker HS, , , Journal of health and social behavior, 1967
17. Swallowing the scroll: legal implications of the recent Supreme Court peyote cases, Bullis RK, , , Journal of psychoactive drugs, 1990
18. United States Food and Drug Administration. CDER Data Standards Manual. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.
19. Abnormal Psychology, , Martin E.P., Seligman, W. W. Norton & Company, ,
20. University of Texas, Addiction Science Research and Education Center
21. The mechanistic classification of addictive drugs, Lüscher C, Ungless M, , , PLoS Med., 2006
22. Ford, Marsha. ''Clinical Toxicology.'' Philadelphia: Saunders, 2001. Chapter 36 - Caffeine and Related Nonprescription Sympathomimetics. ISBN 0721654851
23. Johnson, Brian. (2002) Psychological Addiction, Physical Addiction, Addictive Character, and Addictive Personality Disorder: A Nosology of Addictive Disorders. Retrieved on July 5, 2007.
24. Toward a molecular understanding of psychostimulant actions using genetically engineered dopamine receptor knockout mice as model systems, Zhang J, Xu M, , , J Addict Dis, 2001
25. More Promising Research Findings
26. Parent-adolescent problem-solving interactions and drug use, Hops H, Tildesley E, Lichtenstein E, Ary D, Sherman L, , , The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse, 1990
27. Psychedelics Could Treat Addiction Says Vancouver Official
28. Ibogaine research to treat alcohol and drug addiction
29. United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Retrieved on June 20, 2007.
30. Interpreting Dutch cannabis policy: reasoning by analogy in the legalization debate, MacCoun R, Reuter P, , , Science, 1997
31. History of the Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved at FDA's website on June 23, 2007.
32. United States Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Retrieved from the DEA's website on June 20, 2007.
33. Title 23 of the United States Code, Highways. Retrieved on June 20, 2007.
34. Taxadmin.org. State Excise Tax Rates on Cigarettes. Retrieved on June 20, 2007.
35. What's your poison?
36. Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress (4th edition), , RR, Griffiths, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1995, ISBN 0-7817-0166-X
37. Matters of Substance : Drugs--and Why Everyone's a User, , Griffith, Edwards, Thomas Dunne Books, 2005, ISBN 0-312-33883-X
38. Dworkin, Ronald. ''Artificial Happiness.'' New York: Carroll & Graf, 2006. pp.2-6. ISBN 0786719338
39. Medicating the mind: a Kantian analysis of overprescribing psychoactive drugs, Manninen BA, , , Journal of medical ethics, 2006
40. Prescribing cannabis: freedom, autonomy, and values, Hayry M, , , Journal of medical ethics, 2004
41. Barnett, Randy E. The Presumption of Liberty and the Public Interest: Medical Marijuana and Fundamental Rights. Retrieved on July 4, 2007.
External links
★
Erowid: Extensive online library primarily relating to psychoactive drugs (''Wikipedia article about the website:''
Erowid)
★
Report by the Dutch Government Stating Psilocybin's Relative Harmlessness
★
The Lycæum: Resources and discussions relating to psychoactive drugs
★
Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the
WHO
★
BehaveNet Clinical Capsules: Comprehensive database of psychoactive substances and related pharmacological information
★
Research into the cerebral and neuronal effects of drugs use
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