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The Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal, has been inhabited by hominin species for at least half a million years. The peninsula was first inhabited by early hominin species, then by Neanderthals and later by modern humans. Iberia has seen the rise and fall of various perhistoric hominin cultures.

Contents

Stone ages

Paleolithic

Mesolithic

Neolithic

Metal ages

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Footnotes

References

See also

External links

Stone ages

Hominin inhabitation of the Iberian Peninsula dates from the Paleolithic. Early hominin remains have been discovered at a number of sites on the peninsula. Significant evidence of an extended occupation of Iberia by Neandertal man has also been discovered. Homo sapiens first entered Iberia towards the end of the Paleolithic. For a time Neanderthals and modern humans coexisted until the former were finally driven to extinction. Modern man continued to inhabit the peninsula through the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.

Paleolithic

Iberia has a wealth of prehistoric sites. Many of the best preserved prehistoric remains are in the Atapuerca region, rich with limestone caves that have preserved a million years of human evolution. Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species ''Homo erectus'', ''Homo heidelbergensis'', or a new species called ''Homo antecessor''. In the Gran Dolina, investigators have found evidence of tool use to butcher animals and other hominins, the first evidence of cannibalism in a hominin species. Evidence of fire has also been found at the site, suggesting they cooked their meat.
Also in Atapuerca, is the site at Sima de los Huesos, or "Pit of Bones". Excavators have found the remains of 30 hominins dated to about 400,000 years ago. The remains have been tentatively classified as ''Homo heidelbergensis'' and may be ancestors of the Neanderthals. No evidence of habitation has been found at the site except for one stone hand-ax, and all of the remains at the site are of young adults or teenagers. The age similarity suggests the remains were not the result of accidents. The seemingly deliberate placement of remains and lack of habitation may mean that the bodies were deliberately interred in the pit as a place of burial, which would make the site the first evidence of hominin burial.

Around 200,000 BC, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BC, during the Middle Paleolithic period the last ice age began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. Around 35,000 BC, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. Emanating from Southern France this culture extended into Northern Iberia. This culture continued to exist until around 28,000 BC when Neanderthal man faced extinction, their final refuge being present-day Portugal.
Neanderthal remains have been found at a number of sites on the Iberian Peninsula. A Neanderthal skull was found in Forbes's Quarry in Gibraltar in 1848 making Spain the first country where remains of Neanderthals were found. Neanderthals were not recognized as a separate species until the discovering of remains in Neandertal, Germany in 1856. Subsequent Neanderthal discoveries in Gibraltar have also been made including the skull of a four-year-old child and preserved excrement on top of baked mussel shells.
In Zafarraya a Neanderthal mandible and Mousterian tools, associated with the Neanderthal culture, were found in 1995. The mandible was dated to about 28,000 BC and the tools to about 25,000 BC. These dates make the Zafarraya remains the youngest evidence of Neanderthals and have expanded the timeline of Neanderthal existence. The more recent dating of the remains also provides the first evidence for prolonged co-existence between Neanderthals and modern man. L'Arbreda Cave in Catalonia contains Aurignacian cave paintings, as well as earlier remains from Neanderthals. Some have also suggested that the newer remains in Iberia suggest Neanderthals were driven out of Central Europe by modern man to the Iberian peninsula where they sought refuge.

Around 40,000 BC the first large settlement of Europe by modern humans, nomadic hunter-gathereres came from the steppes of Central Asia, characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome, defining them as an haplogroup R population. When the last ice age reached its maximum extent, these modern humans took refuge in Southern Europe, namely in Iberia, and in the steppes of southern Ukraine and Russia.
From around 32,000 to 21,000 BC the modern human Aurignacian culture dominated Europe. Around 30,000 BC a new wave of modern humans made their way from Southern France into the Iberian peninsula. Here, this genetically homogenous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to the R1b Haplogroup, still dominant in modern Portuguese and Spanish populations. Around 28,000 BC the Gravettian culture began to succeed the Aurignacian.
Around 19,000 BC the Gravettian culture was in turn replaced by that of the Solutreans, who produced some of the finest flint work of the Stone Age allowing them to produce lighter projectile weapons, among other advantages. The pre-historic art in the Valley of Foz Côa (near modern Vila Nova de Foz Côa, in Portugal) is one example of Solutrean cultural period.
Around 15,000 BC, despite the superior production abilities of the Solutrean culture, it was replaced by the Magdalenian culture. The Magdalenians period marked the height of cave painting. By far the most significant cave painting site in Spain is Altamira, dated from about 16,000 to 9,000 BC. Altamira is part of the Cantabrias region where many more caves with paintings have been found. In Altamira, excavators have found evidence of human occupation alongside the paintings. These artifacts include evidence of Solutrean occupation in addition to the Magdalenians, to whom most of the painting is attributed. The Magdalenians used charcoal, ochre, haematite, and animal fat to produce the elaborate display in the cave, the most noteworthy part of which is the Polychrome Ceiling, with many images of bison and other animals. In addition to the grand scale of the paintings, the Stone Age artists also used comparatively advanced artistic techniques. Because of the cave paintings' scale and quality, some have called Altamira the "The Sistine Chapel of Quaternary art".

Mesolithic

Around 10,000 BC an interstadial deglaciation called the Allerød Oscillation occurred, weakening the rigorous conditions of the last ice age. This also ended the Upper Palaeolithic period, beginning the Mesolithic. The populations sheltered in Iberia, descendants of the Cro-Magnon, given the deglaciation, migrated and recolonized all of Western Europe, thus spreading the R1b Haplogroup populations (still dominat, in variant degrees, from Iberia to Scandinavia).
Noteworthy cultures of this period were the Azilian culture in Southern France and Northern Iberia (to the mouth of the Douro river) and the Muge Culture in the Tagus valley. The Azilian culture replaced the Magdalenians around 8,000 BC. The Azilians were the final Paleolithic culture to occupy the Iberian peninsula and extended their time span into the Mesolithic age. During the Mesolithic period, cave art continued to advance, especially in the Levant area of Iberia.

Neolithic

Iberia has many ruins of megalithic monuments created during the Neolithic period and continued into the Chalcolithic or Copper Age. The monuments share many similarities with other Megalithic structures throughout Europe, including those in Brittany and Malta. Dolmens are an especially common structure built by the Neolithic inhabitants of Iberia.
In the fifth millennium BC, with the beginning of the Neolithic in the Iberian peninsula started an autochthonous development of Agriculture. Also the Megalithic European culture spread to most of Europe and had one of its oldest and main centres in the territory of modern Portugal (see Almendres Cromlech).

Meanwhile, the nomadic Hunter-gatherers of the R Haplogroup (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome) that had taken refuge during the last ice age in the Steppes of southern Ukraine and Russia (and had developed the M17 mutation, originating the R1a Haplogroup), gave rise to the Proto-Indo-European cultures (predecessors of the Indo-European population and their languages), such as the Kurgan culture.
In the third millennium BC the Chalcolithic culture of Vila Nova, a Megalithic European culture around the area of modern Lisbon, appeared. In the same period the Beaker culture spread to most of Western Europe (Portugal, Spain, France [excluding the central massif], Great Britain and Ireland, the Low Countries, and Germany from the Elbe valley west, with an extension along the upper Danube into the Vienna basin in Austria, with Mediterranean outposts on Sardinia and Sicily).

Metal ages

Several different cultural groups inhabited Iberia during the Bronze and Iron Ages before the arrival of colonizers, and eventually, the Romans.

Bronze Age

During the first millennium BC a first wave of Indo-European migrations, of the Urnfield culture (Proto-Celts), went to Iberia. This triggered the beginning of the Bronze culture (Indo-European) in the Northwest of the peninsula (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), that maintained commercial relations with Brittany and the British Isles. It was during this period that the Castro Village culture emerged in this Iberian area. During the next centuries the Bronze culture arrived in Iberia Estremadura (not Indo-European) and Beira Alta (not Indo-European but influenced by it).
The Iberians arrived on the peninsula sometime in the third millennium BC Most scholars believe the Iberians came from somewhere farther east in the Mediterranean, although some have suggested that they originated in North Africa. The Iberians settled along the eastern coast of Iberia. The Iberians lived in isolated communities structured as tribes. They also had a knowledge of metal working, including bronze, and agricultural techniques. In later years, the Iberians evolved into a more complex civilization with urbanized communities and social stratification. They traded metals with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians.
The Beaker People spread throughout Europe c. 2000 BC and carried with them knowledge of metal work and their unique pottery designs. The group was once thought to have originated in Spain or Portugal. However, recent investigation pointed to a development that started in the Netherlands based on Corded Ware stock..^[1] This people might have introduced the first Indo-European languages to Iberia.
The Vascones people inhabited northern Iberia from an unknown date. The Vascones were mentioned by the Romans upon their arrival to Iberia. The Vascones were likely the ancestors of the modern Basque people whose language, probably the descendent of the Vascone language, has been a linguistic enigma. The language is outside the regionally dominant family of Indo-European languages and has no known similarities with other language families.
The Los Millares culture developed in the third millennium BC Centered on the Los Millares site, the culture spread throughout Andalucia and eastern Iberia. The Los Millares site contained a complex defensive system with multiple rings of walls and a necropolis with a false dome. In western Iberia the culture of Vila Nova de São Pedro developed, part of the South-Western Iberian Bronze.
The Los Millares culture fell to the El Argar culture, which lasted from c. 1800 BC to c. 1400 BC. The El Argar mined extensively for their metal working, including bronze work. The culture disappeared abruptly around 1400 BC.
From 1300 BC to 700 BC we can find the developpment of the Atlantic Bronze Age, whose main centers seem to be in Portugal, Andalusia (Tartessos?), Galicia and Great Britain. Their commercial contacts extend to Denmark and the Mediterranean as well.
Another Iberian civilization were the Tartessians, now known only through historical references and scattered artifacts. The Tartessian society started to emerge in the territory of modern Andalusia approaching the Iron Age. Tartessos, the first Iberian State mentioned in writing sources was developed in the tenth century BC. Tartessos was a centralized Monarchy brought about under Phoenician influence and maintained commercial relations with the area of modern Algarve, inhabited by the Cynetes, and Portuguese Estremadura. The Tartessos people had advanced knowledge of both metal working and navigation. They sailed to the British isles to trade for tin and other metals. They then traded these with Phoenicians who, possibly as early as 1100 BC, established the city of Cadiz as a trading post. There was strong Tartessian influence in the area of modern Algarve during the seventh century BC followed by the fall of Tartessos in the sixth century BC. Nothing of Tartessos remains except scattered artifacts and historical references by classical civilizations. The city is thought to have been at the mouth of the Guadalquivir river and now likely lies beneath its marshy delta.

Iron Age

The Celts of Europe entered Iberia through two separate migrations in the ninth and seventh centuries BC They generally settled in the north and assimilated various other groups into Celtic culture. The most striking Celtic group was that of the Celtiberians, who integrated the Celtic tradition and knowledge of iron working with Iberian culture.


The Phoenicians of Asia, Greeks of Europe, and Carthaginians of Africa all colonized parts of Iberia to facilitate trade. During the tenth century BC the first contacts between Phoenicians and Iberia (along the Mediterranean coast) were made. This century also saw the emergence of towns and cities in the southern littoral areas of eastern Iberia.
The Phoenicians founded colony of ''Gadir'' (modern Cádiz) near Tartessos. The foundation of Cádiz, the oldest continuously-inhabited city in western Europe, is traditionally dated to 1104 BC, although, as of 2004, no archaeological discoveries date back further than the ninth century BC. The Phoenicians continued to use Cádiz as a trading post for several centuries leaving a variety of artifacts, most notably a pair of sarcophaguses from around the fourth or third centuries BC Contrary to myth, there is no record of Phoenician colonies west of the Algarve (namely Tavira), even though there might have been some voyages of discovery. Phoenician influence in what is now Portuguese territory was essencialy through cultural and commercial exchange with Tartessos.
During the ninth century BC the Phoenicians (from the city-state of Tyre founded the colony of Carthage (in North Africa). During this century Phoenicians also had great influence on Iberia with the introduction the use of Iron, of the Potter's wheel, the production of Olive oil and Wine. They were also responsible for the first forms of Iberian writing, had great religious influence and accelerated urban development. However, there is little evidence to support the myth of a Phoenician foundation of the city of Lisbon as far back as 1300 BC, under the name ''Alis Ubbo'' ("Safe Harbour"), even if in this period there are organized settlements in ''Olissipona'' (modern Lisbon, in Portuguese Estremadura) with clear Mediterranean influences.
There was strong Phoenician influence and settlement in the city of ''Balsa'' (modern Tavira in the Algarve) in the eighth century BC. Phoenician influenced Tavira was destroyed by violence in the sixth century BC. With the decadence of Phoenician colonization of the Mediterranean coast of Iberia in the sixth century BC many of the colonies are deserted. The sixth century BC also saw the rise of the colonial might of Carthage, which slowly replaced the Phoenicians in their former areas of dominion.
The Greek colony at what now is Marseilles began trading with the Celtiberians on the eastern coast around the eighth century BC. The Greeks finally founded their own colony at Ampurias, in the eastern Mediterranean shore (modern Catalonia), during the sixth century BC beginning their settlement in the Iberian peninsula. There are no Greek colonies west of the Strait of Gibraltar, only voyages of discovery. There is no evidence to support the myth of an ancient Greek founding of ''Olissipo'' (modern Lisbon) by Odysseus.
Also during the sixth century BC there was a cultural shift in southern Portuguese territory after the fall of Tartessos, with a strong Mediterranean character that prolonged and modified Tartessian culture. This occurred mainly in Low Alentejo and the Algarve, but had littoral extensions up to the Tagus mouth (namely the important city of ''Bevipo'', modern Alcácer do Sal). The first form of writing in western Iberia (south of Portugal), the Southwest script (still to be translated), dated to the sixth century BC, denotes strong Tartessian influence in its use of a modified Phoenician alphabet. In this writings the word Conii (similar to Cunetes or Cynetes, the people of the Algarve) appears frequently.
The poem ''Ora Maritima'', written by Avienus in the fourth century AD and based on the Massaliote Periplus of the sixth century BC, states that all of western Iberia was once called for the name of its people, the Oestriminis, which were replaced by an invasion of the ''Saephe'' or ''Ophis'' (meaning Serpent). From then on western Iberia would have been know as Ophiussa (Land of the Serpents). The poem probably translates the impact of the Second wave of Indo-European migrations (Celtic) in the seventh century BC. The poem also describes the various ethnic groups the present at that time:

★ The ''Saephe or Ophis'', today seen as probably Hallstatt culture Celts, in all of western Iberia (modern Portugal) between the Douro and the Sado rivers.

★ The ''Cempsi'', probably Hallstatt culture Celts, in the Tagus mouth and the south up to the Algarve.

★ The ''Cynetes'' in the extreme south and some cities along the Atlantic coast (such as ''Olissipo'', modern Lisbon), probably not Indo-European, but autochthonous Iberian of Tartessian background (even if strongly or totally celticized over the next centuries).

★ The ''Dragani'', Celt or Proto-Celt of the first Indo-European wave, in the mountainous areas of Galicia, northern Portugal, Asturias and Cantabria.

★ The ''Lusis'', probably a first reference to the Lusitanians, similar to the Dragani (Celt or Proto-Celt of the first Indo-European wave).
The fifth century BC saw the urban bloom of Tartessian influenced Tavira, further development of strong Central European (Celtic) influences and migrations in western Iberia north of the Tagus river and the development of a second Castro Village culture in Galicia and northern Portugal. Minting of coins and use of money in the Iberian peninsula dates bacl to the fifth century BC. During this century discovery voyages to the Atlantic are made by the Carthaginians. The Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus cites the word ''Iberia'' to designate what is now the Iberian peninsula, according to ancient Greek costume.

In the fourth century BC the Celtici, a new wave of Celtic migration (of the La Tène culture), enter Iberia going as far as modern-day Portuguese territory and settle in the Alentejo also penetrating in the Algarve. The Turduli and Turdetani, probably descendants of the Tartessians, although celticized, became established in the area of the Guadiana river, in the south of modern Portugal. A series of cities in the Algarve, such as ''Balsa'' (Tavira), ''Baesuris'' (Castro Marim), ''Ossonoba''(Faro) and ''Cilpes'' (Silves), became inhabited by the Cynetes progressively mingled with Celtic populations. The Lusitanians (most probably proto-Celt) beagan to inhabit the area between the Douro and the Tagus rivers (and progressively penetrate the High Alentejo). They are neighbored to the east by the Vettones (also probably proto-Celt). The Celtic Calaicians or Gallaeci inhabit all the region above the Douro river (modern Galicia and northern Portugal).
During the fourth century BC Rome began to rise as a Mediterranean power rival to Africa-based Carthage. After their defeat to Rome in the First Punic War (264 BC–241 BC), the Carthaginians began to extend their conquest of Iberia to expand their empire further into Europe. In the Second Punic War (218 BC–202 BC), Hannibal marched his armies, which included Iberians, from Africa through Iberia to cross the Alps and attack the Romans in Italy. Carthage was again defeated and lost Iberia. Rome began its conquest and occupation of the peninsula, thus beginning the era of Hispania.

Footnotes

1. A Test of Non-metrical Analysis as Applied to the 'Beaker Problem' - Natasha Grace Bartels,University of Albeda, Department of Anthropology, 1998 [1]

References

★ Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), ''e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula'', University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, Center for Celtic Studies, 2005.

★ Cerdá, F. Jordá ''et al.'', ''History of Spain 1: Prehistory'', Gredos, 1986. ISBN 84-249-1015-X

★ (dir.), ''História de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de Portugal'', Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, 1992. (in Portuguese)

★ The concept of Atlantic Bronze Age in the framework of 20th century archeological thinking - in Portuguese, English and French

See also

★ Timeline of Portuguese history

★
★ Pre-Roman Western Iberia (Before the third century BC)

★ Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula

External links

★ Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)

★ American Museum of Natural History - Atapuerca

★ Country Studies: Spain - Iberia