'Phoenicia' (or ''Phenicia'' \,
[1] from Biblical ''Phenice'' \
[1]) was an ancient
civilization centered in the north of ancient
Canaan, with its heartland along the coast of modern day
Lebanon &
Syria [3] Phoenician civilization was an enterprising
maritime trading culture that spread across the
Mediterranean during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. Though ancient boundaries of such city-centered cultures fluctuated, the city of
Tyre seems to have been the southernmost.
Sarepta between
Sidon and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a
galley, a man-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the
bireme. There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not.
The Phoenicians spoke the
Phoenician language, counted among the
Canaanite languages in the
Semitic language family. The
Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of virtually all modern alphabets.
[4] Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to
North Africa and
Europe where the alphabet was adopted by the
Greeks.
[5] In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians, contrary to some reports, wrote many books, which have not survived. ''Evangelical Preparation'' by
Eusebius of Caesarea quotes extensively from
Philo of Byblos and
Sanchuniathon. Furthermore, the Phoenician Punic colonies of
North Africa continued to be a source of knowledge about the Phoenicians.
Saint Augustine knew at least a smattering of
Punic and occasionally uses it to explain cognate words found in Hebrew. The name of his mother,
Saint Monica, is said to be of Punic origin as well.
Etymology
The name ''Phoenician'' is of Greek origin. The
Greek ethnonym ''Phoinikes'' is attested since
Homer, and as early as
Linear B ''po-ni-ki-jo'', ultimately borrowed from
Ancient Egyptian ''Fnkw'' "Syrian people".
[6] It became connected with ''φοῖνιξ'' ''phoînix'' "
purple" (cf. also
Phoenix): cloth dyed with ''
Haustellum brandaris'' was a typically Phoenician product. Latin ''Poenicus'', later ''Punicus'' "Punian" is derived from the Greek term.
The term is an
exonym, and the self-designation of Phoenicians was divided by cities: a native of
Sidon would call himself "Sidonian", a native of
Carthage a "Carthaginian" etc., and collectively ''bani kan'an'' "Children of Canaan,".
Origins
Phoenician sarcophagus found in
Cadiz,
Spain; now in Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. The sarcophagus is thought to have been designed and paid for by a Phoenician merchant, and made in Greece with Egyptian influence.
Stories of their emigrating from various places to the eastern Mediterranean are unfounded should these genes not be found in those various places. Hence,
Herodotus's account (written c. 440 BC) refers to a faint memory from 800 years earlier, and so may be subject to question (''History,'' I:1).
This is a legendary introduction to Herodotus' brief retelling of some mythical Hellene-Phoenician interactions; few modern archaeologists would confuse this myth with history. For the theory that the history of Phoenician seafaring starts with the arrival of the
Sea Peoples to the shores of present-day Lebanon, see the relevant article.
In terms of archaeology, language, and religion, there is little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other local cultures of Canaan, because they were Canaanites themselves. However, they are unique in their remarkable seafaring achievements. Indeed, in the
Amarna tablets of the
14th century BC they call themselves ''Kenaani'' or ''Kinaani'' (Canaanites). Note, however, that the Amarna letters predate the invasion of the
Sea Peoples by over a century. Much later in the
6th century BC,
Hecataeus of Miletus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called ''χνα'', a name Philo of Byblos later adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". Egyptian seafaring expeditions had already been made to
Byblos to bring back "
cedars of Lebanon" as early as the
third millennium BC.
To many archaeologists therefore, the Phoenicians are simply indistinguishable from the descendants of coastal-dwelling Canaanites, who over the centuries developed a particular seagoing culture and skills. But others believe equally firmly, with Herodotus, that Phoenician culture must have been inspired from an external source. All manner of suggestions have been made: that the Phoenicians were sea-traders from the
Land of Punt who co-opted the Canaanite population; or that they were connected with the
Minoans, or the
Sea Peoples or the
Philistines further south; or even that they represent the maritime activities of the coastal
Israelite tribes like
Dan.
While the Semitic language of the Phoenicians, and some evidence of invasion at the site of Byblos, suggest origins in the wave of Semitic migration that hit the
Fertile Crescent between ca. 2300 and 2100 BC, some scholars, including
Sabatino Moscati believe that the Phoenicians' ethnogenesis included prior non-Semitic people of the area, suggesting a mixture between two populations. Both Sumerian and Akkadian armies had reached the Mediterranean in this area from the beginning of recorded history, but very little is known of Phoenicia before it was conquered by
Tutmoses III of Egypt around
1500 BC. The
Amarna correspondence (ca. 1411-1358 BC) reveals that
Amorites and
Hittites were defeating the Phoenician cities that had been vassals to Egypt, especially
Rib-Addi of Byblos and
Abi-Milku/Abimelech of Tyre, but between 1350 and 1300 BC Phoenicia was reconquered by Egypt. Over the next century
Ugarit flourished, but was permanently destroyed at the end of it (ca. 1200 BC).
Historian
Gerhard Herm asserts that, because the Phoenicians' legendary sailing abilities are not well attested before the invasions of the
Sea Peoples around 1200 BC, that these Sea Peoples would have merged with the local population to produce the Phoenicians, who he says gained these abilities rather suddenly at that time. There is also archaeological evidence that the Philistines, often thought of as related to the Sea Peoples, were culturally linked to
Mycenaean Greeks, who were also known to be great sailors even in this period.
The question of the Phoenicians' origin persists. Archaeologists have pursued the origin of the Phoenicians for generations, basing their analyses on excavated sites, the remains of material culture, contemporary texts set into contemporary contexts, as well as
linguistics. In some cases, the debate is characterized by modern cultural agendas. Ultimately, the origins of the Phoenicians are still unclear: where they came from and just when (or if) they arrived, and under what circumstances, are all still energetically disputed.
In what were once areas of Phoenician settlement, certain inhabitants still consider themselves descendants of Phoenicians. This includes some Lebanese, Syrians, Maltese, Tunisians, Algerians, Spaniards, Portuguese and a small percentage of Somalis, along with certain other island folk in the Mediterranean.
The cultural and economic "empire"
Fernand Braudel remarked (in ''The Perspective of the World'') that (was) was an early example of a "world-economy" surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and seapower is usually placed ca. 1200 – 800 BC.
Many of the most important Phoenician settlements had been established long before this:
Byblos,
Tyre,
Sidon,
Simyra,
Aradus and
Berytus all appear in the Amarna tablets; and indeed, the first appearance in archaeology of cultural elements clearly identifiable with the Phoenician zenith is sometimes dated as early as the third millennium BC.
This league of independent
city-state ports, with others on the islands and along other coasts of the
Mediterranean Sea, was ideally suited for trade between the
Levant area, rich in natural resources, and the rest of the ancient world. Suddenly, during the early
Iron Age, in around 1200 BC an unknown event occurred, historically associated with the appearance of the
Sea Peoples from the north who were perhaps driven south by crop failures and mass starvation following the eruption at the island Thera. The powers that had previously dominated the area, notably the
Egyptians and the
Hittites, became weakened or destroyed; and in the resulting power vacuum a number of Phoenician cities established themselves as significant maritime powers.
Authority seems to have stabilized because it derived from three power-bases: the king; the temple and its priests; and councils of elders. Byblos soon became the predominant centre from where they proceeded to dominate the Mediterranean and Erythraean (Red) Sea routes, and it is here that the first inscription in the Phoenician alphabet was found, on the sarchophagus of Ahiram (ca. 1200). However, by around 1000 BC Tyre and Sidon had taken its place, and a long hegemony was enjoyed by Tyre beginning with
Hiram I (969-936 BC), who subjected a rebellion in the colony of
Utica. The priest
Ittobaal (887-856 BC) ruled Phoenicia as far north as Beirut, and part of Cyprus.
Carthage was founded in
814 BC under
Pygmalion (820-774 BC). The collection of city-kingdoms constituting Phoenicia came to be characterized by outsiders and the Phoenicians themselves as ''Sidonia'' or ''Tyria'', and Phoenicians and Canaanites alike came to be called ''Zidonians'' or ''Tyrians'', as one Phoenician conquest came to prominence after another.
Phoenician gods
The following were among the deities in the Phoenician or Canaanite pantheon.
[7]
★
Adon(is), handsome young god
★
Anath, goddess of Love and war, the maiden
★
Asherah or Baalat Gubl, goddess of Byblos
★
Astarte (or Ashtarte), queen of Heaven
★
Baal,
El, Ruler of the Universe, son of Dagan, rider of the clouds, Almighty, Lord of the Earth
★
Baal-Hammon, god of fertility and renewer of all energies in the Phoenician colonies of the Western Mediterranean
★
Baal-Sidon, this could just mean 'god of Sidon', also possible is that it was a deification of a patriarch
★
Dagon, god of crop fertility.
★
Eshmun or Baalat Asclepius, god of healing
★
Kathirat, goddesses of marriage and pregnancy
★
Kothar-wa-Khasis, the skilled, god of craftsmanship
★
Melqart, king of the underworld and cycle of vegetation
★
Mot, god of death and of the underworld.
★
Resheph, god of illnesses and plagues.
★
Shamash, god of the Sun
★
Shahar, god of dawn
★
Shalim, god of dusk
★
Shapash, sun goddess
★
Tanit, chief goddess of Carthage
★
Yamm, god of the sea, judge of the dead.
★
Yarikh, moon god
Phoenician trade
Map of Phoenicia and trade routes
In the centuries following 1200 BC, the Phoenicians formed the major naval and trading power of the region. Perhaps it was through these merchants that the Hebrew word ''kena'ani'' ('Canaanite') came to have the secondary, and apt, meaning of "merchant". The Phoenicians traded cedar for making ships and other things. The Greek term "Tyrian purple" describes the dye they were especially famous for, and their port town Tyre. Phoenician trade was founded on this violet-purple dye derived from the ''
Murex'' sea-snail's shell, once profusely available in coastal waters but exploited to local extinction.
James B. Pritchard's excavations at
Sarepta in Lebanon revealed crushed Murex shells and pottery containers stained with the dye that was being produced at the site. Brilliant textiles were a part of Phoenician wealth. Phoenician
glass was another export ware. Phoenicians seem to have first discovered the technique of producing transparent glass. Phoenicians also shipped tall
Lebanon cedars to Egypt, a civilization that consumed more wood than it could produce. Indeed, the Amarna tablets suggest that in this manner the Phoenicians paid tribute to Egypt in the
14th century BC.
From elsewhere they got many other materials, perhaps the most important being
tin and
silver from
Spain, which together with
copper (from
Cyprus) was used to make
bronze.
Strabo states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin.
Trade routes from
Asia converged on the Phoenician coast as well, enabling the Phoenicians to govern trade between
Mesopotamia on the one side, and
Egypt and
Arabia on the other.
The Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the
Mediterranean, the most strategically important ones being
Carthage in
North Africa, and directly across the narrow straits in
Sicily — carefully selected with the design of monopolizing the Mediterranean trade beyond that point and keeping their rivals from passing through. Other colonies were planted in
Cyprus,
Corsica,
Sardinia, the
Iberian Peninsula, and elsewhere. They also founded innumerable small outposts a day's sail away from each other all along the North African coast on the route to Spain's mineral wealth. (Some scholars believe that the name ''Spain'' comes from the Phoenician word ''I-Shaphan'', meaning, thanks to an early double misidentification, 'island of
hyraxes'.)
The date when many of these cities were founded has been very controversial. Greek sources put the foundation of many cities very early.
Gades (Cadiz) in Spain was traditionally founded in
1110 BC, while
Utica in Africa was supposedly founded in
1101 BC. However, no archaeological remains have been dated to such a remote era. The traditional dates may reflect the establishment of rudimentary way stations that left little archaeological trace, and only grew into full cities centuries later. (''The World of the Phoenicians'', Sabatino Moscati, 1965). Alternatively, the early dates may reflect Greek historians' belief that the legends of Troy (mentioning these cities) were historically reliable.
Phoenician ships used to ply the coast of southern Spain and along the coast of present-day Portugal. It has been claimed that the fishermen of
Ilhavo,
Nazaré and
Aveiro in Portugal are of Phoenician descent . This can be seen today in the unusual and ancient design of their boats, which have soaring pointed bows and are painted with mystical symbols. It is often mentioned that Phoenicians ventured north into
the Atlantic ocean as far as Great Britain, where the tin mines in what is now Cornwall provided them with important materials, although no archaeological evidence supports this belief and reliable academic authors see this belief as hollow (''see'' Malcolm Todd - 1987, reference below). They also sailed south along the coast of
Africa. A Carthaginian expedition led by
Hanno the Navigator explored and colonized the Atlantic coast of Africa as far as the
Gulf of Guinea; and according to Herodotus, a Phoenician expedition sent down the
Red Sea by pharaoh
Necho II of Egypt (c. 600 BC) even
circumnavigated Africa and returned through the
Pillars of Hercules in three years.
The Phoenicians were not an agricultural people, because most of the land was not arable; therefore, they focused on commerce and trading instead. They did, however, raise
sheep and sell them and their wool.
The Phoenicians exerted considerable influence on the other groups around the Mediterranean, notably the Greeks, who later became their main commercial rivals. They appear in
Greek mythology. Traditionally, the city of
Thebes was founded by a Phoenician prince named
Cadmus when he set out to look for his sister
Europa, who had been kidnapped by Zeus.
In the
Bible, king
Hiram I of Tyre is mentioned as co-operating with
Solomon in mounting an expedition on the
Red Sea and on building the
temple. The
Temple of Solomon is considered to be built according to Phoenician design, and its description is considered the best description of what a Phoenician temple looked like. Phoenicians from Syria were also called
Syrophenicians.
The
Phoenician alphabet was developed around
1200 BC from an earlier Semitic prototype that also gave rise to the
Ugaritic alphabet. It was used mainly for commercial notes. The
Greek alphabet, that forms the basis of all European
alphabets, was derived from the Phoenician one, hence the Greek word ''phoinikèia'' "writing" and Cretan ''poinikastās'' "writer." The alphabets of the
Middle East and
India are also thought to derive, directly or indirectly, from the Phoenician alphabet. Ironically, the Phoenicians themselves are mostly silent on their own history, possibly because they wrote on perishable materials, papyrus or skins. Other than the stone inscriptions, Phoenician writing has largely perished. There are a very few writers such as
Sanchuniathon quoted only in later works, and the Phoenicians were described by
Sallust and
Augustine as having possessed an extensive literature, but of this, only a single work survives, in Latin translation:
Mago's ''Agriculture''. What we know of them comes mainly from their neighbors, the Greeks and Hebrews.
With the rise of
Assyria, the Phoenician cities one by one lost their independence; however the city of Tyre, situated just off the mainland and protected by powerful fleets, proved impossible to take for the Assyrians, and many others after them. The Phoenician cities were later dominated by
Babylonia, then
Persia. They remained very important, however, and provided these powers with their main source of naval strength. The stacked warships, such as
triremes and
quinqueremes, were probably Phoenician inventions, though eagerly adopted by the Greeks.
Map Of Phoenicia's trade routes:
[1]
Decline
Cyrus the Great conquered Phoenicia in
539 BC. Phoenicia was divided into four vassal kingdoms by the Persians:
Sidon,
Tyre,
Arwad, and
Byblos, and prospered, furnishing fleets for the Persian kings. However, Phoenician influence declined after this. It is also reasonable to suppose that much of the Phoenician population migrated to
Carthage and other colonies following the Persian conquest, as it is roughly then (under King
Hanno) that we first hear of Carthage as a powerful maritime entity. In 350 or 345 BC a rebellion in Sidon led by
Tennes was crushed by
Artaxerxes III, and its destruction was described, perhaps too dramatically, by
Diodorus Siculus.
Alexander the Great took Tyre in
332 BC following the
Siege of Tyre. Alexander was exceptionally harsh to Tyre, executing 2000 of the leading citizens, but he maintained the king in power. He gained control of the other cities peacefully: the ruler of Aradus submitted; the king of Sidon was overthrown. The rise of
Hellenistic Greece gradually ousted the remnants of Phoenicia's former dominance over the Eastern Mediterranean trade routes, and Phoenician culture disappeared entirely in the motherland. However, its North African offspring, Carthage, continued to flourish, mining iron and
precious metals from Iberia, and using its considerable naval power and mercenary armies to protect its commercial interests, until it was finally destroyed by Rome in 146 BC at the end of the
Punic Wars.
As for the Phoenician homeland, following Alexander it was controlled by a succession of Hellenistic rulers:
Laomedon (323 BC),
Ptolemy I (320),
Antigonus II (315),
Demetrius (301), and
Seleucus (296). Between 286 and
197 BC, Phoenicia (except for Aradus) fell to the Ptolemies of Egypt, who installed the high priests of
Astarte as vassal rulers in Sidon (
Eshmunazar I,
Tabnit,
Eshmunazar II). In 197 BC, Phoenicia along with Syria reverted to the Seleucids, and the region became increasingly Hellenized, although Tyre actually became autonomous in
126 BC, followed by Sidon in 111. Syria, including Phoenicia, were seized by king
Tigranes the Great from 82 until
69 BC when he was defeated by
Lucullus, and in
65 BC Pompey finally incorporated it as part of the Roman province of Syria.
Important Phoenician cities and colonies
From the
10th century BC, their expansive culture established cities and colonies throughout the Mediterranean. Canaanite deities like
Baal and
Astarte were being worshipped from Cyprus to Sardinia, Malta, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, and most notably at Carthage in modern Tunisia.
In the Phoenician homeland:
Phoenician colonies, including some unimportant ones (this list might be incomplete):
Countries and Cities that derive their names from Phoenician
There are many countries and cities around the world that derive their names from the Phoenician Language. Below is a list with the respective meanings:
★ Altiburus: City in Algeria, SW of Carthage. From Phoenician: "Iltabrush"
★ Bosa: City in Sardinia: From Phoenician "Bis'en"
★ Cadiz: City in Spain: From Phoenician "Gadir"
★ Dhali (Idalion): City in Central Cyprus: From Phoenician "Idyal"
★ Erice: City in Sicily. From Phoenician "Eryx"
★ Marion: City in West Cyprus: From Phoenician "Aymar"
★ Oed Dekri: City in Algeria: From Phoenician: "Idiqra"
★ Spain: From Phoenician: "I-Shaphan", meaning "Land of Hyraxes". Later latinized as "Hispania"
Language and literature
Main articles: Phoenician languages,
Phoenician alphabet,
Alphabet
The Phoenicians are credited with spreading the
Phoenician alphabet throughout the Mediterranean world. It was a variant of the Semitic alphabet of the Canaanite area developed centuries earlier in the Sinai region, or in central Egypt. Phoenician traders disseminated this writing system along Aegean trade routes, to coastal Anatolia (present day Turkey), the Minoan civilization of Crete,
Mycenean Greece, and throughout the Mediterranean. Classical Greeks remembered that the alphabet arrived in Greece with the mythical founder of Thebes,
Cadmus.bob
This alphabet has been termed an ''
abjad'' or a script that contains no vowels. A
cuneiform ''abjad'' originated to the north in
Ugarit, a Canaanite city of northern Syria, in the
14th century BC. Their language,
Phoenician, is commonly classifed as in the
Canaanite subgroup of Northwest
Semitic. Its later descendant in
North Africa is termed
Punic.
The earliest known inscriptions in Phoenician come from Byblos and date back to ca. 1000 BC. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian Era. Punic, a language that developed from Phoenician in Phoenician colonies around the western Mediterranean beginning in the
9th century BC, slowly supplanted Phoenician there, similar to the way Italian supplanted Latin. Punic Phoenician was still spoken in the 5th century CE:
St. Augustine, for example, grew up in
North Africa and was familiar with the language.
Phoenicians in the Bible
In
the Old Testament there is no reference to the Greek term ''Phoenicia''; instead, the inhabitants of the coastal region are identified by their city of origin, most often as
Sidonians (Gen. x. 15; Judges iii. 3; x. 6, xviii. 7; I Kings v. 20, xvi. 31). Early relations between Israelites and the Canaanites were cordial:
Hiram of Tyre, a Phoenician by modern assessment, furnished architects, workmen and cedar timbers for the temple of his ally
Solomon at Jerusalem. The
Phoenician language was largely mutually intelligible with the
Hebrew language,ethnical and cultural similarities between the two peoples were significant, leading to the worship of Phoenician gods like
Baal by some Jews during the time of Prophet
Elijah (and vice versa, many Phoenicians have converted to Judaism) . "Baal" has also a meaning of "Lord," and is found in many Biblical names. For example
Gideon's other name is "Jerub-Baal." Similarly the name of the Phoenician god "
Adonis" means "Lord" and in modern Hebrew "Adon" is used for "Sir."
There is another Hiram (also spelled Huran) associated with the building of the temple.
"2Ch 2:14 The son of a woman of the daughters of Dan, and his father [was] a man of Tyre, skilful to work in gold, and in silver, in brass, in iron, in stone, and in timber, in purple, in blue, and in fine linen, and in crimson; also to grave any manner of graving, and to find out every device which shall be put to him..."
This is the architect of the Temple,
Hiram Abiff of
Masonic lore. They are vastly famous for their purple dye.
Later, reforming prophets railed against the practice of drawing royal wives from among foreigners:
Elijah execrated
Jezebel, the princess from Tyre who became a consort of King
Ahab and introduced the
worship of her gods.
Long after Phoenician culture had flourished, or Phoenicia had existed as any political entity, Hellenized natives of the region where Canaanites still lived were referred to as "Syro-Phoenician", as in the ''
Gospel of Mark'' 7:26: "The woman was a Greek, a Syrophoenician by birth..."
The word ''
Bible'' itself ultimately derives (through Latin and Greek) from
Byblos, the Phoenician city.
Because of its
papyruses, Byblos was also the source of the Greek word for book and, hence, of the name of the Bible.
[8]
Coin finds
There are claims that Phoenician coins can be found as far inland of the United States of America as Nebraska and Oklahoma.
[9] These claims have not been published in any scientific journals and, again, there is no widespread acceptance of the validity of this work in the scientific community.
Further more additional claims had been made in 1976 that a site in New Hampshire, called
Mystery Hill, was
also grounds for Phoenician and Celtic coin finds and is still the site for a 2700 years old
sacrificial altar.
[10]
There is a scientific consensus about the stone slab being used as a butcher block or altar but
no proof of it being Punic or Phoenician.
See also
★
Phoenicianism
★
Names of the Levant
References
1. Mish, Frederick C., Editor in Chief. “Phoenicia.” ''Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary''. 9th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc., 1985. ISBN 0-87779-508-8, ISBN 0-87779-509-6 (indexed), and ISBN 0-87779-510-X (deluxe).
2. Mish, Frederick C., Editor in Chief. “Phoenicia.” ''Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary''. 9th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc., 1985. ISBN 0-87779-508-8, ISBN 0-87779-509-6 (indexed), and ISBN 0-87779-510-X (deluxe).
3. http://phoenicia.org/syria.html
4. http://phoenicia.org/alphabet.html
5. Edward Clodd, ''Story of the Alphabet'' (Kessinger) 2003:192ff
6. Sinuhe, B220. Said "Fenesh/w". Refers spefically to Phoenician area. ''Urk''.
7. http://phoenicia.org/pagan.html
8. "Geography of Phoenicia". Retrieved July 31, 2007.
9. http://privatei.com/~bartjean/chap11.htm
10. http://www.geomancy.org/sacred-space/old-sacred-spaces/new-england/part-3/index.html
★ Aubet, Maria Eugenia, ''The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade'', tr. Mary Turton (
Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2001: review)
★ Sanford Holst, "Phoenicians, Lebanon's Epic Heritage." Cambridge and Boston Press, Los Angeles, 2005.
★ ''The History of Phoenicia'', first published in 1889 by
George Rawlinson is available under
Project Gutenberg at: http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2331 Rawlinson's 19th century text needs updating for modern improvements in historical understanding.
★
The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of England series No.:8), , Malcolm, Todd, Longman, , ISBN 0-582-49274-2 (Paperback), 0-582-49273-4 (hardback) , for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K
★ Thiollet, Jean-Pierre, ''Je m'appelle Byblos'', H & D, Paris, 2005. ISBN 2 914 266 04 9
External links
★
Encyclopedia Phoeniciana website largest and most comprehensive website on Phoenicia about 1,200 pages
★
University of Pennsylvania Museum offers simplified but unbiased information on Canaan and Phoenicians, emphasizing common aspects of culture among Israel and the other kingdoms in Canaan.
★
Phoenician Experience presents recent research on the Phoenicians, and traces their ancient legends.
★
Phoenicians overview by Genry Joil.
★
Phoenicians in Cadiz bay (Spain) Punic Phoenician archaeology in Cadiz bay (Spain)
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