PEREGRINE FALCON

The 'Peregrine Falcon' ('''Falco peregrinus''') is a cosmopolitan bird of prey in the family Falconidae. It is a medium-sized falcon, about the size of a large crow.del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., & Sargatal, J., eds. (1994). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World'' Vol. 2. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona ISBN 84-87334-15-6.Cramp, S., ed. (1980). ''The Birds of the Western Palearctic'' Vol. 2. Oxford ISBN 0-19-857505-X. It was formerly often known in North America as "Duck Hawk" (''see also'' American Kestrel, Merlin) though it is not closely related to true hawks.^[1]
Its breeding range includes the Arctic tundra, through Europe, and North America, and south into Africa, South America, the Pacific Islands and Australia. Essentially, this species can be found everywhere on Earth, making it one of the worlds most common falcons (though only as a winter visitor in some areas), except in the polar regions, on very high mountains, in deserts, and most tropical rainforests. The only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent is New Zealand. Both the English and scientific names of this species mean "wandering falcon", and refer to the species' wide range and its highly migratory habits.

Contents

Description

Taxonomy and systematics

Subspecies

The Barbary Falcon problem

Ecology and behavior

Feeding habits

Reproduction

Relationship with humans

Recovery efforts

The situation today

Gallery

Footnotes

References

External links

Description

The Peregrine Falcon is a large falcon, with a body length of 34–50 cm (13–20 in) and a wingspan of around 80–120 cm (31–47 inches). The male and female have similar markings and plumage, but as usual in birds of prey the Peregrine Falcon displays marked sexual dimorphism in size, with the female measuring up to 30 percent larger than the male. Males weigh 440–750 g, and the noticeably larger females weigh 910–1500 g; for variation in weight between subspecies, see under that section below.
The back and the long and pointed wings of the adult Peregrine Falcon are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies" below); the wingtips are black. The underparts are white to rusty and barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black. The tail, colored like the back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "moustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat. The cere is yellow, as are the feet, and the beak and claws are black. The upper beak is notched near the tip, an adaptation which enables falcons to kill prey by severing the spinal column at the neck^[2].Terres (1991), White (1994), Snow (1998)
The young bird is much browner with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere.

Taxonomy and systematics

The scientific name ''Falco peregrinus'', means "wandering falcon" in Latin^[3]. Indeed, the species' common name refers to its wide-ranging flights in most European languages^[4]. The Latin term for falcons, ''falco'', is related to ''falx'', the Latin word meaning sickle, in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight.²
The Peregrine Falcon belongs to a lineage of its genus which also includes the hierofalcons^[5] and the Prairie Falcon. This lineage probably diverged from other falcons as part of a general diversification of the genus at the end of the Late Miocene or in the Early Pliocene, about 8-5 million years ago (mya). As the Peregrine-herofalcon group includes both Old World and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in western Eurasia or Africa. Its relationship to other falcons is not clear; it might be close to the Red-necked Falcon and/or the American Kestrel which is not related to the "typical" kestrels and has a similar syrinx morphology as the Peregrine and the hierofalcons, but more research is required to resolve this; the issue is complicated by widespread hybridization confounding mtDNA sequence analyses; for example a genetic lineage of the Saker Falcon is known^[6] which originated from a male Saker producing fertile young with a female Peregrine ancestor some 100,000 years ago. Today, Peregrines are occasionally hybridized with other species such as Lanner Falcons to produce the "perilanner", a somewhat popular bird in falconry as it combines the Peregine's hunting skill with the Lanner's hardiness, or the Gyrfalcon to produce large, strikingly-colored birds for experienced falconers. As can be seen, the Peregrine is still genetically close to the hierofalcons, though their lineages diverged in the Late Pliocene (maybe some 2.5-2 mya in the Gelasian).^[7]
Fossil remains of a hierofalcon-like large ''Falco'' are known from the Early Pliocene of Bulgaria to the Early Pleistocene of southern and central Europe. Given the large range in time and that the fossil history of the Peregrine-Barbary complex is documented since the Early Pleistocene, it might be more than one species. It is interesting to note that the remains straddle the proposed divergence point of the Peregine complex and the hierofalcons in time and are geographically close to the region where the split presumably occurred (the general region of North Africa or the Mediterranean basin). Unfortunately, the specimens are fully fossilized, making them useless for molecular biological studies. Even so, time and place strongly indicate that these bones belong to a bird very close to if not actually the common ancestor to the Peregrine/Barbary complex and the hierofalcons, and/or an early representative of either lineage: The ecological niche for large falcons is at least today generally not sufficient to permit more than two species to exist in any one locality and given that this applies in all kinds of habitat, it is likely that this was already so during the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary regardless the different climate and associated habitat distribution at that time.^[8]

Subspecies

Numerous subspecies of the Peregrine Falcon have been described:^[9]

★ '''Falco peregrinus peregrinus''' Tunstall, 1771 - includes ''brevirostris'', ''germanicus'', ''rhenanus'', ''riphaeus''
:The nominate subspecies, breeding over much of temperate Eurasia between the tundra in the N and the Pyrenees, Mediterranean region and Alpide belt in the S. Mainly non-migratory in Europe, mainly migratory in Asia. Males weigh 580-750 g, while females weigh 925-1,300 g.

★ '''Falco peregrinus japonensis''' Gmelin, 1788 - includes ''kleinschmidti'' and ''pleskei''. ''harterti'' seems to refer to intergrades with ''calidus''.
:NE Siberia to Kamchatka (possibly replaced by ''pealei'' on coast there) and Japan. Northern populations migratory, those of Japan resident.
:Similar to ''peregrinus''; young even darker than in ''anatum''.

★ '''Falco peregrinus calidus''' Latham, 1790 - formerly ''leucogenys''; includes ''caeruleiceps''
:Breeds in Arctic tundra of Eurasia, from Lapland to roughly Yana and Indigirka Rivers, Siberia. Completely migratory, travelling south in winter as far as sub-Saharan Africa.
:Paler than nominate, especially on crown. Males weigh 588-740 g, while females weigh 925-1,333 g.

★ '''Falco peregrinus macropus''' Swainson, 1837 - 'Australian Peregrine Falcon'
:Australia except in the SW; non-migratory.
:Rather similar to ''brookei''; slightly smaller and ear region all black. Feet are proportionally large.

★ '''Falco peregrinus peregrinator''' Sundevall, 1837 - 'Indian Peregrine Falcon' (also Black Shaheen or Indian Shaheen^[10]). Formerly sometimes known as ''Falco atriceps'' or ''Falco shaheen''.
:South Asia from Pakistan across India to Sri Lanka and SE China. Non-migratory.
:Unmistakeable: small, dark, underparts rufous with lighter barring.

★ '''Falco peregrinus anatum''' Bonaparte, 1838 - 'American Peregrine Falcon', or "Duck Hawk" (its scientific name actually means "Duck Peregrine Falcon"). At one time partly included in ''leucogenys''.
:Mainly found in the Rocky Mountains today. Formerly common throughout North America between the tundra and northern Mexico, where current reintroduction efforts seek to restore the population. Most mature ''anatum'', except those that breed in more northern areas, winter in their breeding range. Most vagrants that reach western Europe seem to belong to the more northern and strongly migratory ''tundrius'', only considered distinct since 1968.
:Similar to nominate ''peregrinus'' but slightly smaller; adults somewhat paler and less patterned below but juveniles darker and more patterned below. Males weigh 500-570 g, while females weigh 900-960 g.White (1994), Michigan Department of Natural Resources (2007)

★ '''Falco peregrinus minor''' Bonaparte, 1850 - formerly often ''perconfusus'' (Stresemann ''fide'' Vaurie 1961)
:Sparsely and patchily distributed throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa; widespread in Southern Africa and apparently reaches N along Atlantic coast as far as Morocco. Non-migratory.
:Small and dark.

★ '''Falco peregrinus radama''' Hartlaub, 1861
:Madagascar, Comoros. Non-migratory.

★ '''Falco peregrinus brookei''' Sharpe, 1873 - 'Mediterranean Peregrine Falcon' or 'Maltese Falcon'^[11]. Includes ''caucasicus'' and most specimens of proposed race ''punicus''; others may be ''pelegrinoides'' Barbary Falcons (see also below) or perhaps the rare hybrids between these two which might occur around Algeria.
:From Iberia around the Mediterranean (except in arid regions) to the Caucasus. Non-migratory.
:Smaller than nominate; underside usually has rusty hue. Males weigh around 445 g, while females weigh up to 920 g.

★ '''Falco peregrinus cassini''' Sharpe, 1873 - 'Austral Peregrine Falcon'. Includes var. ''kreyenborgi'' ('Pallid Falcon'^[12]), a leucistic morph occurring in southernmost South America, long believed to be a distinct species (Ellis & Peres Garat 1983).
:W South America from Ecuador (where very local) through Bolivia, N Argentina and Chile to Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands. Non-migratory.
:Similar to nominate; slightly smaller and ear region black; var. ''kreyenborgi'' is medium grey above, has little barring below, and a head pattern like Saker Falcon but ear region white; see Ellis & Peres Garat (1983) for photos.

★ '''Falco peregrinus pealei''' Ridgway, 1873 - 'Peale's Falcon'. Includes ''rudolfi''.
:Pacific Northwest of North America, northwards from the Puget Sound via British Columbia coast (including the Queen Charlotte Islands), along the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the far eastern Bering Sea coast of Russia; possibly on the Kuril Islands and the coasts of Kamchatka also. Non-migratory.
:The largest subspecies; looks like an oversized and darker ''tundrius'' or like a strongly barred and large ''anatum''. Bill very wide. Juveniles occasionally have "blond" crowns.

★ '''Falco peregrinus ernesti''' Sharpe, 1894
:Indonesia to Philippines and S to Papua New Guinea and Bismarck Archipelago; limits with ''nesiotes'' require confirmation. Non-migratory.
:Very dark, dense barring on underside and black ear region.

★ '''Falco peregrinus submelanogenys''' Mathews, 1912 - 'Southwest Australian Peregrine Falcon'.
:SW Australia; non-migratory.

★ '''Falco peregrinus furuitii''' Momiyama, 1927
:Volcano and possibly Bonin group, Ogasawara Islands. Non-migratory. Not seen since 1945 and not found by a dedicated surves in 1982, this subspecies might be extinct. Its puzzling similarity to the completely allopatric ''pealei'' deserves more study.
:A rather dark form resembling ''pealei'' in color, but darker, especially on tail.

★ '''Falco peregrinus nesiotes''' Mayr, 1941
:Fiji; probably also Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Non-migratory.

★ '''Falco peregrinus madens''' Ripley & Watson, 1963 - unusual in having some sexual dichromatism; if the Barbary Falcon is considered a distinct species, sometimes placed therein.
:Cape Verde Islands; non-migratory.
:Males have rufous wash on crown, nape, ears and back; underside conspicuously washed pinkish-brown. Females are tinged rich brown overall, especially on crown and nape.

★ '''Falco peregrinus tundrius''' C.M. White, 1968 - at one time included in ''leucogenys''
:Arctic tundra of North America to Greenland. Migrates to wintering grounds in Central and South America. Most vagrants that reach western Europe seem to belong to this subspecies, which was long united with ''anatum''.
:The New World equivalent to ''calidus''; however, smaller than southern neighbor (''anatum''). Most have conspicuous white forehead and much white in ear region, but crown and "moustache" very dark (unlike in ''calidus''). Juveniles browner, less grey, than in ''calidus'', and paler, sometimes almost sandy, than in ''anatum''.

The Barbary Falcon problem

:''Main articles: Barbary Falcon
''
A particular taxonomic problem is the Barbary Falcon or Red-naped Shaheen (or "Arabic" Shaheen, شاهین). These birds inhabit arid regions from the Canary Islands along the rim of the Sahara through the Middle East to Central Asia and Mongolia. They have a red neck patch but otherwise differ in appearance from the Peregrine proper merely according to Gloger's Rule. The genetic distance is slight and the supposed species form a close-knit and somewhat paraphyletic group in DNA sequence analyses. On the other hand, they differ more in behavior, ecology and anatomy^[13] than usual for conspecifics. They are able to produce fertile hybirds^[14], but they are generally allopatric and only co-occur during breeding season in small areas around Punjab, Khorasan, and possibly the Maghreb and the Mongolian Altai, and there is clear evidence of assortative mating with hybridization hardly ever occurring under natural conditions.^[15]
Assuming a genetic distance of 2% in hierofalcons (Wink ''et al.'' 2004) corresponds to a divergence roughly 200,000-130,000 years ago (Nittinger ''et al.'' 2005), the 0.6-0.7% genetic distance in the Peregine-Barbary Falcon ("peregrinoid") complex (Wink ''et al.'', 2000) suggests its current taxa evolved in the Late Pleistocene some 100,000 years ago or less, but before the Upper Paleolithic. The presumed time of divergence between Peregrine and Barbary Falcons approximately coincides with the start of the last ice age, when desertification was prominent in North Africa and the Middle East, and the Persian Gulf became a landlocked inland sea that slowly dried up. Populations of ancestral "peregrinoid" falcons living in marginal habitat at the fringe of the African-Middle Eastern desert belt either adapted (and might have become isolated e.g. in the Persian Gulf region, which turned into semiarid habitat surrounded by vast deserts), or left for better habitat, or became extinct. During interstadials, deserts receded and the aridland and humidland populations could expand to contact again, causing some limited gene flow. This scenario by and large parallels the proposed evolutionary history of the Saker Falcon in relation to the other hierofalcons; indeed, that group shows similar patterns of molecular paraphyly though it is of somewhat earlier origin.^[16]
The fossil record adds little to the issue. A humerus some 9,000 years old (i.e., after the last ice age) from the Aswan area in Sudan, where ''Falco peregrinus minor'' occurs today, was identified to belong to the Peregrine (Tchernov 1968). It is not clear whether it was compared to a Barbary Falcon bone, but as habitat conditions then were nearly the same as today it is not likely to have been that taxon.
In conclusion, it is simply impossible to unequivocally resolve the issue whether the Barbary Falcon should be considered a species, or a subspecies complex of the Peregrine. It is apparent that the Barbary Falcons have completed some steps that make an evolutionary lineage a species (such as evolving a marked degree of reproductive isolation and morphological and ecological distinctness), but as evolution is a never-ending process and the taxa have no postzygotic reproduction barriers in place yet, the ultimate fate of the Barbary Falcon will decide itself in the next 10,000s to 100,000s of years (provided it does not become extinct in the meantime). It might eventually be subsumed again into a common gene pool with the Peregrine Falcon proper, or it might evolve into an unquestionably distinct species.
For the time being, it is perhaps worthwhile to note that the Barbary Falcon is one of the rare cases that may arguably be considered a species under the Biological, but certainly not under the Phylogenetic Species Concept rather than the other way around as usual. In addition, this case demonstrates that what makes a "species" is not just its descent, but also what happens to a population in the course of evolution, how it adapts, and how this affects its reproductive isolation (or lack thereof) from its sister taxa - and being coincident with the evolution of modern humans, it also illustrates the length of a speciation process: The lineages of the "peregrinoid" complex diverged about the time when stone-age humans were working with Aterian tools and were just starting to adorn their body with jewellery^[17]; the eventual outcome of the evolutionary process is unlikely to be resolved until 50,000 AD or later.
If the Barbary Falcon is included in ''Falco peregrinus'', the following taxa are added:

★ ''Falco peregrinus pelegrinator'' Temminck, 1829
:Canary Islands through north Africa and the Near East to Mesopotamia
:Most similar to ''brookei'', but markedly paler above with rusty neck, light buff with reduced barring below. Smaller than Peregrine Falcon; females weigh around 610 g.

★ ''Falco peregrinus babylonicus'' P.L. Sclater, 1861
:E Iran along Hindu Kush and Tian Shan to Mongolian Altai ranges.
:Paler than ''pelegrinator''; somewhat similar to a small, pale Lanner Falcon. Smaller than Peregrine Falcon; males weigh 330–400 g, while females weigh 513–765 g.

Ecology and behavior

The Peregrine Falcon lives mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, coastlines, and increasingly in cities. In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Populations that breed in colder climes typically migrate great distances during the northern winter.
The Peregrine Falcon is the fastest animal on the planet in its hunting dive, the stoop, in which it soars to a great height, then dives steeply at speeds of over hitting one wing of its prey, so as not to harm itself on impact.^2[18] It should be noted, however, that in level flight the fastest-flying bird is the White-throated Needletail and either animal is often quoted as being the fastest on earth.
The life span in the wild is up to 15.5 years, although some have been recorded to live more than 20 years. Mortality in the first year is between 59–70%, declining to between 25–32% in adults. Apart from anthropogenic threats like collision with man-made objects, the Peregrine may be killed by large eagles, the Eurasian Eagle Owl, Gyrfalcon, Wildcat and Wolverine; inexperienced young may also be preyed upon by adult Peregrines.
Being nearly an apex predator, the Peregrine Falcon is host to a range of parasites and pathogens. It is a vector for Avipoxvirus, Newcastle disease virus, Falconid herpesvirus 1 (and possibly other Herpesviridae), and some mycoses and bacterial infections. Endoparasites include ''Plasmodium relictum'' (usually not causing malaria in the Peregrine Falcon), a ''Leukocytozoon''-like apicomplexan, Strigeidae trematodes, ''Serratospiculum amaculata'' (nematode), and tapeworms. Known Peregrine Falcon ectoparasites are chewing lice^[19] ''Ceratophyllus garei'' (a flea), and Hippoboscidae flies (''Icosta nigra'', ''Ornithoctona erythrocephala'').^[20]

Feeding habits

Immature using a ship as a convenient perch to eat its prey on

The Peregrine Falcon feeds almost exclusively on medium sized birds such as doves, waterfowl and songbirds. Very rarely will it hunt small mammals, including bats, rats, voles, hares, mice and squirrels; the coastal populations of the large subspecies ''pealei'' feed almost exclusively on seabirds. Insects and reptiles make up a small proportion of the diet, which varies greatly depending on what prey is available^[21]. In urban areas, the Peregrine Falcon catches common city birds such as pigeons and Common Starlings. In many cities, it has been credited with controlling the numbers of such birds which are often considered pests, alleviating the need for controversial methods such as poisoning or hunting. Faced with starvation, the Peregrine Falcon may resort to cannibalism, eating its own chicks.
The Peregrine Falcon hunts at dawn and dusk, when prey is most active. It requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water, marshes, valleys, fields and tundra. It searches for prey either from a high perch or from the air. Once prey is spotted, it begins a dive, called a stoop, folding tail and wings back, with feet held behind. The air pressure from a 200 mph dive could possibly damage a bird's lungs, but small bony tubercles in a falcon's nostrils guide the shock waves of the air entering the nostrils (compare intake ramps and inlet cones of jet engines) and enable the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure. Prey is struck and captured in mid-air; the Peregrine Falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it, then turns to catch it in mid-air. The Peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there if it is too heavy to carry. Prey is plucked before consumption.^[22]

Reproduction

Adult of subspecies ''pealei'' or ''tundrius'' at nest, Alaska

The Peregrine Falcon first breeds at approximately two or three years of age. The pair mates for life and return to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives. The male passes prey it has caught to the female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons. During the breeding season, the Peregrine Falcon is territorial; nesting pairs are usually more than 1 km (0.6 miles) apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs. The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within a breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two to seven in a 16-year period. The pair defends the chosen nest site against other Peregrines, and often against eagles or ravens.(Blood & Banasch 2001)
The Peregrine Falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges or, occasionally, on tall buildings or bridges. Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation, and south-facing sites are favored. The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added. In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as a nest site The Peregrine occasionally nests in tree hollows or in the disused nest of other large birds. The man-made structures used for breeding typically closely resemble the natural cliff ledges that the Peregrine prefers for its nesting locations.^[23]

Peregrine Falcon chick

Three to four eggs are laid in the scrape. The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings. They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female. While the male also sometimes helps with the incubation of the eggs, it does so only occasionally and for short periods. The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the Northern Hemisphere, and from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere (the Australian subspecies ''macropus'' may breed as late as November and equatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December). The female generally lays another clutch if the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, though this is extremely rare in the Arctic owing to the short summer season. As a result of some infertile eggs and natural losses of nestlings, the average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledge is about 1.5.
After hatching, chicks are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet. The "tiercel" (male) brings food to the female and chicks, but the chicks are fed by the female, which stays at the nest and watches the young. Chicks typically fledge 35 to 42 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months (Snow 1994). When learning to fly, the fledglings practice the roll and the pumping of the wings before they master the actual stoop.

Relationship with humans

:''See also: Peregrine Falcons in popular culture''

This ''Falco peregrinus peregrinus'' was found injured, and rehabilitated in Olomouc Zoological Garden, Czech Republic.

Successful efforts at saving the Peregrine were recognized by a U.S. postal stamp.

The Peregrine Falcon became an endangered species because of the overuse of pesticides such as DDT during the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. Pesticide biomagnification interfered with reproduction, thinning eggshells and reducing the number of eggs that survived to hatching. The organochlorine build-up in the falcon's fat tissues would result in less calcium in the eggshells, leading to flimsier, more fragile eggs.^[24] In several parts of the world, such as the eastern USA and Belgium, this species became extinct as a result (Snow 1994). Peregrine eggs and chicks are often targeted by black marketeers^[25] and unscrupulous egg collectors, so it is normal practice not to publicise unprotected nest locations.

Recovery efforts

Wildlife services around the world organized Peregrine Falcon recovery teams to breed the species in captivity. The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with a hand puppet mimicking a Peregrine's head, so they cannot see and imprint on the human trainers. Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is called hacking back to the wild. To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to accompany itself with its future environment.
Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful. The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully. The Peregrine Falcon was removed from the U.S. Threatened and Endangered Species list on August 25, 1999. In 2003, some States began issuing limited numbers of falconry permits for Peregrines, due to the success of the recovery program.

The situation today

Many Peregrine Falcons have settled in large cities, including London, Ontario, Derby, Brisbane and Cologne, where they nest on cathedrals, skyscraper window ledges, and the towers of suspension bridges:

★ About 18 pairs nested in New York City in 2005.

★ In Virginia, state officials working with students from the Center for Conservation Biology of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg successfully established nesting boxes high atop the George P. Coleman Memorial Bridge on the York River, the Benjamin Harrison Memorial Bridge and Varina-Enon Bridge on the James River, and at other similar locations. Thirteen new chicks were hatched in this Virginia program during a recent year. Over 250 falcons have been released through the Virginia program.

★ In the 53-mile long New River Gorge of West Virginia, another program is under way to re-establish populations by transferring "bridge chicks" from Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey to special nesting boxes mounted on the high cliffs.

★ Chicago started its habitat protection programs during the October 1999 "Nature Week" with an election to choose the official bird of the city; the Peregrine Falcon won.^[26]

★ In the UK, there has been a good recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by the RSPB. Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in the west and north. They are also using some city buildings for nesting, capitalizing on the urban pigeon populations for food.

★ In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, the species was extinct in the 1970s. In 1984, it was successfully reintroduced at the Cologne Cathedral where the species has been breeding regularly since, due to ready availability of feral pigeons and nesting ledges^[27]. The birds are accustomed to and can often be observed by tourists; an average of 2 young fledge each year. The total North Rhine-Westphalian population had increased to 100 breeding pairs by 2005.

Gallery

Footnotes

1. Friedmann, H. (1950). The birds of North and Middle America. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50 (pt 11):1-793.
2. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: ''All About the Peregrine Falcon''. Version of 1999-AUG-20. Retrieved 2007-AUG-13.
3. University of Minnesota Raptor Center: ''Peregrine Falcon''. Version of 2004-JUN-25. Retrieved 2007-AUG-13.
4. E.g. French ''faucon '', German ''falke'', Italian language ''falco '', Polish ''sokół wędrowny'', Slovak ''sokol sťahovavý'', Swedish ''pilgrimsfalk''
5. ''Contra'' Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Wink ''et al.'' (1998). The supposed basal position of the hierofalcons was due to them having a cytochrome ''b'' numt: see Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2000)
6. Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Wink ''et al.'' (1998)
7. Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Wink ''et al.'' (1998), Griffiths (1999), Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2000), Groombridge ''et al.'' (2002), Griffiths ''et al.'' (2004), Nittinger ''et al.'' (2005)
8. Brodkorb (1964), Tchernov (1968), White ''et al.'' (1994), Mlíkovský (2002)
9. Vaurie (1961), White (1994), Snow ''et al.'' (1998)
10. The ''shaheen'' (شاهین) of Arabic and Persian writers are usually Barbary Falcons; those in Indian (शाहीन) and Pakistani (شاہین) sources normally refer to ''peregrinator''.
11. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor levied a rent of these birds on the Knights Hospitaller when he donated the Island of Malta to them. Source of the name for Dashiell Hammett's novel.
12. Also called "Kleinschmidt's Falcon", but this might equally refer to ''F. p. kleinschmidti'' which is a junior synonym of ''japonensis''
13. Notably, the Barbary Falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings like fulmars sometimes do; this also occurs in the Peregrine, but less often and far less pronounced (Snow ''et al.'' 1998). The Barbary Falcon's shoulder and pelvis bones are unusually stout by comparison with the Peregrine and its feet are smaller (Vaurie, 1961), suggesting that hybridization has not affected the evolution of these traits. It was proposed (Vaurie 1961) that the Barbary Falcon also has an elongated middle toe, but this seems to be in error (Snow ''et al.'' 1998).
14. White (1994), though as seen above, fertile hybrids may occur between Peregine Falcons and undoubtedly good and far more distant species. In general terms, the ability to produce fertile offspring is a plesiomorphy initially shared by close relatives; the loss of ability to hybridize successfully is an apomorphy. Hence, the ''inability'' rather than the ability to produce fertile hybrids is phylogenetically informative.
15. Vaurie (1961), Helbig ''et al.'' (1994), Snow ''et al.'' (1998), Wink ''et al.'' (1998), Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2000), Wink ''et al.'' (2000), Wink ''et al.'' (2004)
16. Nittinger ''et al.'' (2005)
17. ''Nassarius'' seashell beads from an 82,000-year-old deposit are among the first evidence of humans creating items of personal adornment.
18. A study testing the flight physics of an 'ideal falcon' found a theoretical speed limit at 400 km/h (250 mph) for low speed flight and 625 km/h (390 mph) for high speed flight (Tucker 1998).
19. ''Colpocephalum falconii'' which was described from specimens found on the Peregrine Falcon, ''Colpocephalum subzerafae'', ''Colpocephalum zerafae'' and ''Nosopon lucidum'' (all Menoponidae), ''Degeeriella rufa'' (Philopteridae), ''Laemobothrion tinnunculi'' (Laemobothriidae). All are known from other ''Falco'' species too.(Dewey & Potter 2002, Dagleish 2003)
20. Raidal ''et al.'' (1999), Raidal & Jaensch (2000), Dewey & Potter (2002), Dalgleish (2003)
21. U.S. National Park Service: ''American Peregrine Falcon''. Version of 2001-APR-09. Retrieved 2007-AUG-13.
22. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources: ''Peregrine Falcon (''Falco peregrinus'')''. Version of 2003-JAN-7. Retrieved 2007-AUG-13.
23. White (1994), Blood & Banasch (2001)
24. Birds of Prey: Their biology and ecology, , Leslie, Brown, Hamlyn, 1976,
25. Trade in wild-caught Peregrine Falcons and their eggs and young is illegal in most jurisdictions. Falconers are advised to demand valid documentation even if they are able to legally purchase this species.
26. Falcon Living Real Estate: ''Peregrine Falcon: Official City Bird of Chicago''. Version of 2006-JUL-06. Retrieved 2007-AUG-14.
27. Deutscher Falkenorden Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen: ''Gestern bis Heute - Greifvogelschutz'' [in German]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-14.

References

★ Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern

★ (2001): Hinterland Who's Who Bird Fact Sheets: Peregrine Falcon. Retrieved 2007-AUG-13.

★ (1964): Catalogue of Fossil Birds: Part 2 (Anseriformes through Galliformes). ''Bulletin of the Florida State Museum'' '8'(3): 195-335. PDF or JPEG fulltext

★ (2003): ''Aves de Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego y Península Antártcica''. Editorial Fantástico Sur Birding Ltda. ISBN 956-8007-03-2

★ (2003): Birds and their associated Chewing Lice: Falconidae - Falcons, Caracaras. Version of 2003-AUG-30. Retrieved 2007-AUG-15.

★ (2002): Animal Diversity Web: ''Falco peregrinus''. Retrieved 2007-AUG-12.

★ (1983): The Pallid Falcon ''Falco kreyenborgi'' is a color phase of the Austral Peregrine Falcon (''Falco peregrinus cassini''). ''Auk'' '100'(2): 269-271. PDF fulltext

★ (1999): Phylogeny of the Falconidae inferred from molecular and morphological data. ''Auk'' '116'(1): 116–130. PDF fulltext

★ (2004): Phylogeny of the Falconidae (Aves): a comparison of the efficacy of morphological, mitochondrial, and nuclear data. ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' '32'(1): 101–109. (HTML abstract)

★ (2002): A molecular phylogeny of African kestrels with reference to divergence across the Indian Ocean. ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' '25'(2): 267–277. (HTML abstract)

★ (1994): Phylogenetic relationships among falcon species (genus Falco) according to DNA sequence variation of the cytochrome b gene. ''In:'' : ''Raptor conservation today'': 593-599. PDF fulltext

★ (2007): Peregrine Falcon (''Falco peregrinus''). Retrieved 2007-AUG-12.

★ (2002): ''Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe''. Ninox Press, Prague. ISBN 80-901105-3-8 PDF fulltext

★ (2005): Out of Africa? Phylogenetic relationships between ''Falco biarmicus'' and other hierofalcons (Aves Falconidae). ''Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research'' '43'(4): 321-331. PDF fulltext

★ (2000): Central nervous disease and blindness in Nankeen kestrels (''Falco cenchroides'') due to a novel ''Leucocytozoon''-like infection. ''Avian Patholog'' '29'(1): 51-56. PDF fulltext

★ (1999): Preliminary Report of a Parasitic Infection of the Brain and Eyes of a Peregrine Falcon ''Falco peregrinus'' and Nankeen Kestrels ''Falco cenchroides'' in Western Australia. ''Emu'' '99'(4): 291-292.

★ (1998): ''The complete birds of the western Palaearctic on CD-ROM''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192685791

★ (1968): Peregrine Falcon and Purple Gallinule of late Pleistocene Age in the Sudanese Aswan Reservoir Area. ''Auk'' '85'(1): 133. PDF fulltext

★ (1991): ''The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds''. Wings Books, New York. Reprint of 1980 edition. ISBN 0517032880

★ (1998): Gliding flight: speed and acceleration of ideal falcons during diving and pull out. ''Journal of Experimental Biology'' '201'(3): 403-414. PDF fulltext

★ (1961): Systematic notes on Palearctic birds. No. 44, Falconidae, the genus ''Falco''. (Part 1, ''Falco peregrinus'' and ''Falco pelegrinoides''). ''American Museum Novitates'' '2035': 1-19. fulltext

★ (1994): 60. Peregine Falcon. ''In:'' (editors): ''Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 2 (New World Vultures to Guineafowl)'': 274-275, plate 28. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-15-6

★ (1994): Family Falconidae. ''In:'' (editors): ''Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 2 (New World Vultures to Guineafowl)'': 216-275, plates 24-28. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-15-6

★ (2000): Advances in the molecular systematics of African raptors. ''In:'' : ''Raptors at Risk'': 135-147. WWGBP/Hancock House, Berlin/Blaine. PDF fulltext

★ (1998): Molecular systematics of holarctic raptors (Order Falconiformes). ''In:'' : ''Holarctic Birds of Prey'': 29-48. Adenex & WWGBP. PDF fulltext

★ (2000): Phylogenetic relationships between Black Shaheen (''Falco peregrinus peregrinator''), Red-naped Shaheen (''F. pelegrinoides babylonicus'') and Peregrines (''F. peregrinus''). ''In:'' : ''Raptors at Risk'': 853-857. WWGBP/Hancock House, Berlin/Blaine. PDF fulltext

★ (2004): Phylogenetic relationships in the Hierofalco complex (Saker-, Gyr-, Lanner-, Laggar Falcon). ''In:'' : ''Raptors Worldwide'': 499-504. WWGBP, Berlin. PDF fulltext

External links

★ Falcon Research Group

★ Cornell Lab of Ornithology: Peregrine Falcon

★ Peregrine Falcons of Morro Rock California

★ BirdLife Species Factsheet

★ US FWS site

★ Peregrine Falcon conservation

★ The Nature Conservancy's Birds of Prey: Peregrine Falcon

★ Peregrine Foundation, Canada

★ picture 20-22 day old Peregrine chicks

★ South Dakota Birds: Peregrine Falcon

★ Peregrine Falcon nest on the tower of St. Gudule cathedral in Brussels, Belgium Note:In Spanish

★ Peregrines in Barcelona, Spain

★ Ottawa Peregrine Falcon Watch Website

★ Interesting facts and observations on the Peregrine Falcon

★ information and photos of Peregrine Falcon ernesti

★ Peregrine Falcon videos on the Internet Bird Collection

★ The only Peregrine Falcon Webcam in the Southern Hemisphere (Brisbane, Australia)