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'''Parsifal''' is an opera, or music drama, in three acts by Richard Wagner. It is loosely based on Wolfram von Eschenbach's ''Parzival'', the medieval (13th century) epic poem of the Arthurian knight Parzival (Percival) and his quest for the Holy Grail.
During the first Act, Parsifal, an apparently witless fool, sees the suffering of the wounded Amfortas, King of an order of knights who guard the Grail. In the second Act Parsifal wanders into the domain of Klingsor, a magician who is trying to corrupt the Knights of the Grail and who has stolen from them the spear used to pierce Jesus Christ during his crucifixion. There Parsifal meets Kundry, the slave of Klingsor, who attempts to seduce him. In resisting her, he destroys Klingsor, and recovers the Spear. In the third Act, Parsifal returns to the Grail Kingdom to heal Amfortas.
Wagner first conceived the work in April 1857 but it was not finished until twenty-five years later. It was to be Wagner's last completed opera and in composing it he took advantage of the particular sonority of his Bayreuth Festspielhaus. Parsifal was first produced at the second Bayreuth Festival in 1882. The Bayreuth Festival maintained an exclusive monopoly on Parsifal productions until 1903, when the opera was performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York.
Wagner preferred to describe Parsifal not as an opera, but as "ein Bühnenweihfestspiel" - "A Festival Play for the Consecration of the Stage". At Bayreuth a tradition has arisen that there is no applause after the first act of the opera.

Contents

Composition

Early performances of ''Parsifal''

Roles

Synopsis

Act I

Act II

Act III

Criticism and Influence

Listening to ''Parsifal''

Leitmotifs

Sound samples

Recordings of Parsifal

Instrumentation

On- or Off-stage instruments

The bells

References

Notes

External links

Composition

Wagner first read Wolfram von Eschenbach's poem ''Parzival'' while taking the waters at Marienbad in 1845. After encountering Arthur Schopenhauer's work in 1854, Wagner became interested in oriental philosophies, particularly Buddhism. He was particularly inspired by reading Eugène Burnouf's ''"Introduction à l'histoire du buddhisme indien"'' in 1855/56. Out of this interest came "Die Sieger" ("The Victors", 1856) a sketch Wagner wrote for an opera based on a story from the life of Buddha. The themes which were later explored in Parsifal of self-renouncing, reincarnation, compassion and even exclusive social groups (castes in Die Sieger, the Knights of the Grail in Parsifal) were first introduced in "Die Sieger".
According to his own account, recorded in his autobiography ''Mein Leben'', Wagner conceived ''Parsifal'' on Good Friday morning, April 1857, in the Asyl, or “Asylum”, the small cottage on Otto von Wesendonck’s estate in the Zürich suburb of Enge which Wesendonck, a wealthy silk merchant and generous patron of the arts, had placed at Wagner’s disposal. The composer and his wife Minna moved into the Asyl on 28 April:

... on Good Friday I awoke to find the sun shining brightly for the first time in this house: the little garden was radiant with green, the birds sang, and at last I could sit on the roof and enjoy the long-yearned-for peace with its message of promise. Full of this sentiment, I suddenly remembered that the day was Good Friday, and I called to mind the significance this omen had already once assumed for me when I was reading Wolfram's ''Parzival''. Since the sojourn in Marienbad [in the summer of 1845], where I had conceived ''Die Meistersinger'' and ''Lohengrin'', I had never occupied myself again with that poem; now its noble possibilities struck me with overwhelming force, and out of my thoughts about Good Friday I rapidly conceived a whole drama, of which I made a rough sketch with a few dashes of the pen, dividing the whole into three acts. (Mein Leben, Vol II)

In fact, as he later admitted to his second wife Cosima Wagner, this account had been coloured by a certain amount of poetic licence:

22 April 1879: R[ichard] today recalled the impression which inspired his “Good Friday Music”; he laughs, saying he had thought to himself, “In fact it is all as far-fetched as my love affairs, for it was not a Good Friday at all - just a pleasant mood in Nature which made me think, ‘This is how a Good Friday ought to be’”. (Cosima Wagner, ''Die Tagebücher'')

The work may indeed have been conceived in the Asyl in the last week of April 1857, but Good Friday that year fell on 10 April, when the Wagners were still living at Zeltweg 13 in Zürich. If the prose sketch which Wagner mentions in ''Mein Leben'' was accurately dated (and most of Wagner’s surviving papers are dated), it could settle the issue once and for all, but unfortunately it has not survived.
Wagner did not resume work on ''Parsifal'' for eight years, during which time he completed ''Tristan und Isolde'' and began ''Die Meistersinger''. Then, between 27 and 30 August 1865, he took up ''Parsifal'' again and made a prose draft of the work; this contains a fairly brief outline of the plot and a considerable amount of detailed commentary on the characters and themes of the drama. But once again the work was dropped and set aside for another eleven and a half years. During this time most of Wagner’s creative energy was devoted to the ''Ring'' cycle, which was finally completed in 1874 and given its first full performance at Bayreuth in August 1876. Only when this gargantuan task had been accomplished did Wagner find the time to concentrate on ''Parsifal''. By 23 February 1877 he had completed a second and more extensive prose draft of the work, and by 19 April of the same year he had transformed this into a verse libretto - or “poem”, as Wagner liked to call his libretti).
In September 1877 he began the music by making two complete drafts of the score from beginning to end. The first of these (known in German as the ''Gesamtentwurf'' and in English as either the ''Preliminary Draft'' or the ''First Complete Draft'') was made in pencil on three staves, one for the voices and two for the instruments. The second complete draft (''Orchesterskizze'', ''Orchestral Draft'', ''Short Score'' or ''Particell'') was made in ink and on at least three, but sometimes as many as five, staves. This draft was much more detailed than the first and contained a considerable degree of instrumental elaboration.
The second draft was begun on 25 September 1877, just a few days after the first: at this point in his career Wagner liked to work on both drafts simultaneously, switching back and forth between the two so as not to allow too much time to elapse between his initial setting of the text and the final elaboration of the music. The ''Gesamtentwurf'' of Act III was completed on 16 April 1879 and the ''Orchesterskizze'' on the 26th of the same month.
The full score (''Partiturerstschrift'') was the final stage in the compositional process. It was made in ink and consisted of a fair copy of the entire opera, with all the voices and instruments properly notated according to standard practice.
Wagner composed ''Parsifal'' one act at a time, completing the ''Gesamtentwurf'' and ''Orchesterskizze'' of each act before beginning the ''Gesamtentwurf'' of the next act; but because the ''Orchesterskizze'' already embodied all the compositional details of the full score, the actual drafting of the ''Partiturerstschrift'' was regarded by Wagner as little more than a routine task which could be done whenever he found the time. The Prelude of Act I was scored in August 1878. The rest of the opera was scored between August 1879 and 13 January 1882.

Early performances of ''Parsifal''

On 12 November 1880 Wagner conducted a private performance of the Prelude for his patron Ludwig II of Bavaria at the Court Theatre in Munich. The premiere of the entire work was given in the Festspielhaus at Bayreuth on 26 July 1882 under the baton of the German-born Jewish conductor Hermann Levi. In July and August of 1882 sixteen performances of the work were given in Bayreuth under Levi and Franz Fischer. At the last of these performances, Wagner took the baton from Levi and conducted the closing bars.
For the first twenty years of its existence, the only staged performances of ''Parsifal'' (apart from eight private performances for Ludwig II at Munich in 1884 and 1885) took place in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, the venue for which Wagner conceived the work. Wagner had two reasons for wanting to keep 'Parsifal' exclusively for the Bayreuth stage. Firstly, he wanted to prevent 'Parsifal' from degenerating into 'mere amusement' for an opera-going public. Only at Bayreuth could his last work be presented in the way envisaged by him - a tradition maintained by his wife, Cosima, long after his death. Secondly he thought that 'Parsifal' would provide an income for his family after his death if Bayreuth had the monopoly on its performance. The Bayreuth authorities allowed concert performances to take place in various countries after Wagner's death (e.g. London in 1884, New York in 1886, and Amsterdam in 1894) but they maintained an embargo on stage performances outside Bayreuth. On 24 December 1903, after receiving a court ruling that performances in the USA could not be prevented by Bayreuth, the New York Metropolitan Opera staged the complete opera, much to the chagrin of Wagner's family. Unauthorized stage performances were also undertaken in Amsterdam in 1905, 1906 and 1908. In 1913, Wagner's centenary year, Bayreuth's monopoly on the work was finally broken and since then the work has been freely staged throughout the world. The first authorized performance was staged in Barcelona: it began one hour before midnight on December 31 1912, taking advantage of the one hour difference between Barcelona and Bayreuth.
At Bayreuth performances audiences do not applaud at the end of the first act. This tradition is the result of a misunderstanding arising from Wagner's desire at the premiere to maintain the serious mood of the opera. After much applause following the first and second acts, Wagner spoke to the audience and said that the cast would take no curtain calls until the end of the performance. This confused the audience, who remained silent at the end of the opera until Wagner addressed them again, saying that he did not mean that they could not applaud. After the performance Wagner complained "Now I don't know. Did the audience like it or not?" At following performances some believed that Wagner had wanted no applause until the very end, and there was silence after the first two acts. Eventually it became a Bayreuth tradition that no applause would be heard after the first act, however this was certainly not Wagner's idea. In fact during the first Bayreuth performances Wagner himself cried "Bravo!" as the Flower-maidens made their exit in the Second Act, only to be hissed by other members of the audience. ^[1] At theatres other than Bayreuth, applause and curtain-calls is normal practise after every act.

Roles

Role	Voice type	Premiere Cast July 26, 1882 (Conductor: Hermann Levi)	The Met Premiere Cast December 24, 1903 (Conductor: Alfred Hertz)
Parsifal	tenor	Hermann Winkelmann	Alois Burgstaller
Kundry	mezzo-soprano or soprano	Amalia Materna	Milka Ternina
Gurnemanz, ''a veteran Knight of the Grail''	bass	Emil Scaria	Robert Blass
Amfortas, ''ruler of the Grail kingdom''	baritone	Theodor Reichmann	Anton van Rooy
Klingsor, ''a magician''	bass	Karl Hill	Otto Goritz
Titurel, ''Amfortas' father''	bass	August Kindermann	Marcel Journet
Two Grail Knights	tenor, bass	Anton Fuchs Eugen Stumpf	Bayer Muhlmann
Four Esquires	sopranos, tenors	Hermine Galfy Mathilde Keil Max Mikorey Adolf von Hübbenet	Moran Braendle Harden Bayer
Six Flowermaidens	3 sopranos, 3 contraltos or 6 sopranos	Pauline Horson Johanna Meta Carrie Pringle Johanna André Hermine Galfy Luise Belce
Voice from Above, ''Eine Stimme''	contralto	Sophie Dompierre	Louise Homer
''Knights of the Grail, boys, flowermaidens''

Synopsis

Place: Spain, the castle of Monsalvat and Klingsor's magic palace.

Act I

In a wood near the castle of Monsalvat, home to the Knights of the Grail, Gurnemanz, one of the Knights of the Grail, wakes his young squires and leads them in prayer. He notices the retinue of Amfortas approach, and asks the leading Knight for news of the King’s health. The knight tells him that the King has suffered during the night and is going early for his bath. The squires ask Gurnemanz to explain how the King’s injuries can be healed, but before he can do so a wild woman – Kundry - bursts in. She gives Gurnemanz balsam, brought from Arabia, to ease the King’s pain and then collapses, exhausted.

Amfortas, King of the Grail Knights, arrives, carried on a stretcher. He asks for Gawain, only to be told that this Knight has left without his permission. Angrily, Amfortas says that this sort of impetuousity was what led him to Klingsor’s realm and to his downfall. He receives Kundry’s potion and tries to thank her, but she answers, incoherently, that thanks will not help and urges him to his bath.
The King leaves, and the squires question Kundry mistrustfully. Gurnemanz tells them that Kundry has often helped the Grail Knights but that she appears and disappears at her whim. When he himself asks why she does not stay to help, she replies that she never helps. The squires think she is a witch and sneer that if she is so helpful, why does she not find the Holy Spear for them? Gurnemanz says that this is destined to be the job of another. He tells them that Amfortas had been the guardian of the Spear, but lost hold of it as he was being seduced by a fearsomely attractive woman in Klingsor’s domain. Klingsor had then grabbed the Spear and stabbed Amfortas: this is the wound which causes Amfortas’ suffering and it is said that it will never heal by itself.
Two squires, returning from the King’s bath, tell Gurnemanz that Kundry’s balsam has eased the King’s sufferings for the moment. His squires ask Gurnemanz whether he knew Klingsor. He tells them of how the Holy Spear, which was used to wound the Redeemer on the Cross, and the Grail which caught His blood, had come to Monsalvat to be guarded by the Knights of the Grail under the rule of Titurel – Amfortas’ father. Klingsor had yearned to join the Knights, but had been unable to drive impure thoughts from his mind and resorted to self-castration which led to his expulsion. Klingsor then bitterly set himself up in opposition to the Kingdom of the Grail, learning dark arts and establishing a domain full of beautiful flower-maidens who seduce and destroy the Knights of the Grail. It was in this way that Amfortas lost the Holy Spear, which is now in Klingsor’s hand. Gurnemanz relates how Amfortas then had a vision in which he was told to wait for a “pure fool, enlightened by compassion” (“Durch Mitleid wissend, der reine Tor”) who would finally heal his wound.
Just at this moment, cries are heard from the Knights: a flying swan has been shot, and a young man is brought forth, a bow in his hand and carrying a quiver of matching arrows. Gurnemanz speaks sternly to the lad and tells him that this is a holy domain and then asks the boy what harm had the swan ever done to him. Gurnemanz gets the lad to notice the now lifeless remains of the swan and lack of life in the swan's eye. Remorseful, the boy now breaks his self-made bow and casts it aside. Gurnemanz asks the boy to say why he is here, who his father is, how he arrived at the realm of the Grail, and what his name is. To each question the boy replies, "I don't know." When asked what he does know, the boy says he has a mother called Herzeleide, and that he made his bow himself. Kundry has been watching and now she tells them that the boy’s father was Gamuret, a knight killed in battle, and how the boy’s mother had forbidden her son to use a sword, fearing that he would suffer the same fate as his father. The boy exclaims that after seeing Knights passing through his forest he immediately left his mother to follow them. Kundry laughs and tells the boy that his mother has died of grief, at which the boy attempts to attack Kundry, but then collapses in grief. Kundry suddenly seems overcome with sleep, but cries out that she must not sleep and wishes that she would never waken. She crawls off to rest.
Gurnemanz knows that only the pious are led by the Grail to Monsalvat and thus takes the boy to observe the Grail ritual. The boy does not know what the Grail is, but remarks as they walk that although he scarcely moves, he has travelled far. Gurnemanz tells him that in this realm, time becomes space.
They arrive at the Hall of the Grail, where the Knights are assembling to receive Holy Communion. The voice of Titurel is heard, telling his son, Amfortas, to uncover the Grail. Amfortas is racked with shame and suffering. He is the Guardian of the Grail, and yet he has succumbed to temptation and lost the Holy Spear: he declares himself unworthy of his office. He cries out for forgiveness (“Erbarmen!”) but hears only the promise of future redemption by the pure fool. The Knights and Titurel urge him to reveal the Grail, which he finally does. The Hall is bathed in the light of the Grail as the Knights commune. Gurnemanz motions to the boy to participate, but he, entranced, does not notice. Amfortas does not commune, and as the ceremony ends, he collapses in pain and is taken out. Slowly the Hall empties leaving only the boy and Gurnemanz, who asks him if he has understood what he has seen. The boy cannot answer and is roughly ejected by Gurnemanz with a warning not to shoot swans. A voice from heaven repeats the promise, “The pure fool, enlightened by compassion."

Act II

The second act begins in Klingsor’s magic castle, where Klingsor calls up his seeming servant to destroy this foolish boy who has found his way to Klingsor's domain. He names her: Herodias, Gundryggia and finally Kundry. She is again transformed into the incredibly alluring woman who had seduced Amfortas. She wakes from her sleep and resists Klingsor. As he claims power over her, she mocks his enforced chastity, and that casts Klingsor into self-reproach but soon after that, Kundry succumbs to her own curse. Klingsor calls up Knights from his domain to attack the boy, but can only watch as they are wounded and beaten back. He sees the boy stray into his Flowermaiden garden and calls on Kundry to seek the boy out – but she has already gone.

The boy finds himself in a Garden surrounded by the beautiful and seductive Flower-maidens. They call to him and entwine themselves around him, chiding him for wounding their lovers and for resisting their charms. They fight amongst themselves to win his love but are stilled when a voice calls out, "Parsifal!" The boy suddenly remembers that this is the name his mother used when she appeared in his dreams. The Flower-maidens recoil from him and call him a fool, leaving Parsifal and Kundry alone. He wonders if this has all been a dream and asks how she knows his name. Kundry tells him that she knows his name from his Mother who had loved him and tried to protect him from his father’s fate, but who he abandoned and who finally died of grief. Parsifal is overcome with remorse and blames himself for his mother’s death. He thinks he must be very stupid to have forgotten his mother. Kundry says that this is his first sign of understanding, and that she can help him understand his mother’s love by kissing him. As they kiss, Parsifal recoils in pain and cries out for Amfortas: Parsifal feels Amfortas's wound burning in his side, and now understands Amfortas’ passion during the Grail Ceremony. Filled with this compassion for Amfortas, Parsifal rejects Kundry.
Furious, Kundry tells Parsifal that if he can feel compassion for Amfortas, then he must feel compassion for her as well. She has been cursed for centuries, unable to rest, because she saw the Savior on the cross and laughed. Now she can never weep, only laugh, and though she seems to be the slave of the Spear-carrier, due to her curse, she lives only to seduce. He rejects her again and asks her to lead him to Amfortas. She begs him to stay with her for just one hour, and then she will lead him to Amfortas. When he refuses again, she curses him to wander without ever returning to the Kingdom of the Grail, and finally she calls on Klingsor to help her.
Klingsor appears and throws the Spear at Parsifal, which stops in midair over his head. Parsifal seizes it and makes the sign of the Cross, and the castle crumbles. As he leaves, he tells Kundry that she knows where she can find him again.

Act III

The Third act opens again at the Kingdom of the Grail, many years later. Gurnemanz, now aged and bent, hears a crying outside his hut and discovers Kundry unconscious. He revives her, using water from the Holy Spring, but she will only speak the word “serve” (“Dienen”). Gurnemanz wonders if there is any significance in the fact that she has reappeared on this special day. He then notices a figure dressed in full armour approaching. He cannot see who it is because the stranger wears a helmet, and does not speak. Finally the apparition removes its helmet and Gurnemanz recognises the boy who shot the swan, and then realises that the spear carried by him is the Holy Spear.
Parsifal tells of his desire to return to Amfortas. He relates his journey, wandering for years unable to find the path back to the Grail: he has often been forced to fight, but has never wielded the Spear in battle. Gurnemanz tells him that the curse preventing Parsifal from finding his right path has now been lifted, but that in his absence Amfortas has refused to reveal the Grail, and that Titurel has died. Parsifal is overcome with remorse, blaming himself for this state of affairs. Gurnemanz tells him that today is the day of Titurel’s funeral rites, and that Parsifal has a great duty to perform. Kundry washes Parsifal’s feet and Gurnemanz anoints him with water from the Holy Spring, recognising him as the pure fool, now enlightened by compassion, and as the new King of the Knights of the Grail.
Parsifal comments on the beauty of the meadow and Gurnemanz explains that today is Good Friday, when all the world is renewed. Parsifal baptizes the weeping Kundry.
Once more they travel to the Hall of the Grail. Amfortas is brought before the Grail and before Titurel’s coffin. He cries out to his dead father to offer him rest from his sufferings, and wishes to join him in death. The Knights of Grail urge Amfortas angrily to reveal the Grail to them again, but Amfortas in a frenzy says he will never reveal the Grail and commands his Knights to kill him. At this moment, Parsifal arrives and says that only one weapon can perform this task: with the Spear he heals Amfortas’ wound and forgives him. He commands the revealing of the Grail. All kneel while Kundry, released from her curse, sinks lifeless to the ground.

Criticism and Influence

As Wagner's last opera, Parsifal has been both influential and controversial. The use of Christian symbols in Parsifal (the Grail, the Spear, references to the Redeemer) have sometimes led to it being regarded almost as a religious rite. Friedrich Nietzsche, who was originally one of Wagner's champions, clearly hated the idea of it as a pseudo-Christian ritual, although he admitted that the music was sublime: "Has Wagner ever written anything better?" (Letter to Peter Gast, Wagner's scrivener, 1887). Claude Debussy, who was in later years very critical of Wagner and his influence, called it "one of the loveliest monuments of sound ever raised to the serene glory of music". Gustav Mahler, who attended the premiere, stated afterwards: "When I came out of the Festspielhaus, unable to speak a word, I knew that I had experienced supreme greatness and supreme suffering, and that this experience, hallowed and unsullied, would stay with me for the rest of my life". Parsifal was a major source of inspiration for T. S. Eliot's poem "The Waste Land", and also adapted for the screen (in a highly controversial fashion) by director Hans-Jürgen Syberberg.
Some writers see in the opera the promotion of racism and anti-semitism ^[2][3] suggesting that Parsifal was written in support of the ideas of Arthur de Gobineau who advocated Aryanism. Parsifal is proposed as the "pure-blooded" (''ie'' Aryan) hero who overcomes Klingsor, who is perceived as a Jewish stereotype, particularly since he opposes the quasi-Christian Knights of the Grail. Such claims remain heavily debated,^[4][5][6] since there is nothing explicit in the libretto to support them, and Cosima Wagner's diaries, which relate in great detail Wagner's thoughts over the last 14 years of his life (including the period covering the composition and first performance of Parsifal) never mention any such intention. Wagner first met Gobineau very briefly in 1876, but he only read Gobineau's ''An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races''^[7] in 1880. However, Wagner had completed the libretto for Parsifal by 1877, and the original drafts of the story date back to 1857. Despite this lack of chronology, Gobineau is frequently cited as a major inspiration for Parsifal.^[8]
If Parsifal so clearly expressed the concept of Aryan supremacy then it would doubtless have been popular with the Nazi party in 20th Century Germany. In fact, the Nazis placed a ''de facto'' ban on performances of Parsifal because of its "pacifist undertones".^[9]
Other writers (particularly Bryan Magee ^[10]) see Parsifal as Wagner's last great espousal of Schopenhaurian philosophy. Parsifal can heal Amfortas and redeem Kundry because he shows compassion, which Schopenhauer saw as the highest form of human morality. Moreover, he displays compassion in the face of enormous sexual temptation (Act 2 scene 3). Once again, Schopenhaurian philosophy suggests that the only escape from the ever-present temptations of human life is through negation of the Will, and overcoming sexual temptation is in particular a strong form of negation of the Will. When viewed in this light, Parsifal, with its emphasis on "Mitleid" (compassion) is a natural follow-on to ''Tristan und Isolde'', where Schopenhauer's influence is perhaps more obvious, with its focus on "Sehnen" (yearning). Indeed, Wagner originally considered including Parsifal as a character in Act 3 of ''Tristan'', but later rejected the idea.^[11]
Many music theorists have used ''Parsifal'' to explore difficulties in analyzing the chromaticism of late 19th century music. Theorists such as David Lewin and Richard Cohn have explored the importance of certain pitches and harmonic progressions both in structuring and symbolizing the work.^[12][13] The unusual harmonic progressions in the leitmotivs which structure the piece, as well as the heavy chromaticism of Act II, make it a difficult work to parse not only philosophically, but musically.

Listening to ''Parsifal''

This section serves as an introduction to appreciating the music of ''Parsifal''.

Leitmotifs

A leitmotif is a recurring musical theme associated within a particular piece of music with a particular person, place or idea. Wagner is the composer most often associated with leitmotifs, and ''Parsifal'' makes liberal use of them. The opening prelude introduces two important leitmotifs, the Communion theme and the Grail. These two, and Parsifal's own motive, are repeatedly referred back to during the course of the opera. Other characters, especially Klingsor, Amfortas, and "The Voice," which sings the Tormotif (Fool's motive), have their own particular leitmotifs.

Sound samples

★ Parsifal (Act III) 6:29 (1523 kB) - Libretto
Wiener Staatsoper, Orchester der Wiener Staatsoper, Donald Runnicles, Vienna, 11 April 2004

★ Parsifal: Finale To Act III 4:00
Max Von Schillings / State Opera Orchestra, Berlin

Recordings of Parsifal

Parsifal was expressly composed for the stage at Bayreuth and many of the most famous recordings of the opera come from live performances on that stage. In the pre-LP era, Karl Muck conducted excerpts from the opera at Bayreuth which are still considered some of the best performances of the opera on disc (they also contain the only sound evidence of the bells constructed for the work's premiere, which were later melted down by the Nazis during World War II). Hans Knappertsbusch was the conductor most closely associated with Parsifal at Bayreuth in the post-war years, and the performances under his baton in 1951 marked the re-opening of the Bayreuth Festival after the Second World War. These historic performances were recorded and are available on the Teldec label in mono sound. Knappertsbusch recorded the opera again for Philips in 1962 in stereo, and this release is often considered to be the classic Parsifal recording. There are also many "unofficial" live recordings from Bayreuth, capturing virtually every Parsifal cast ever conducted by Knappertsbusch.
Amongst the studio recordings, those by Georg Solti, Herbert von Karajan and Daniel Barenboim (both conducting the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra) have been widely praised. The von Karajan recording was voted "Record of the Year" in the 1981 Gramophone Awards. Also highly regarded is a recording of Parsifal under the baton of Rafael Kubelík originally made for Deutsche Grammophon, now reissued on Arts Archives.
There are many recordings of Parsifal, some of the most popular being listed below, with the five principal singers being listed thus: Parsifal, Kundry, Gurnemanz, Amfortas, Klingsor.

★ Hans Knappertsbusch conducting the Bayreuth Festival Orchestra with Wolfgang Windgassen, Martha Mödl, Ludwig Weber, George London and Hermann Uhde 1951 (Teldec, mono)

★ Hans Knappertsbusch conducting the Bayreuth Festival Orchestra with Jess Thomas, Irene Dalis, Hans Hotter, George London and Gustav Niedlinger 1962 (Philips, stereo)

★ Pierre Boulez conducting the Bayreuth Festival Orchestra with James King, Dame Gwyneth Jones, Franz Crass, Thomas Stewart and Sir Donald McIntyre 1970 (Deutsche Grammophon, stereo)

★ George Solti conducting the Vienna State Opera Orhcestra with René Kollo, Christa Ludwig, Gottlob Frick, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Zoltan Kéléman, 1972 (Decca, stero)

★ Rafael Kubelík conducting the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra with James King, Yvonne Minton, Kurt Moll, Bernd Weikl and Franz Mazura, 1980 (Arts Archives, stereo)

★ Armin Jordan conducting the Monte Carlo Radio Orchestra with Reiner Goldberg, Yvonne Minton, Robert Lloyd, Wolfgang Schoene, and Aage Haugland, 1981 (Erato, stereo)

★ Herbert von Karajan conducting the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra with Peter Hofmann, Dunja Vejzovic, Kurt Moll, José van Dam and Siegmund Nimsgern, 1980 (Deutsche Grammophon, stereo)

★ Daniel Barenboim conducting the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra with Siegfried Jerusalem, Waltraud Meier, Jose van Dam, Matthias Holle, and Gunter von Kannen 1991 (Teldec, stereo)

★ James Levine conducting the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with Placido Domingo, Jessye Norman, Kurt Moll, James Morris and Ekkehard Wlaschiha, 1993 (Deutsche Grammophon, stereo)

★ Christian Thielmann conducting the Vienna State Opera Orchestra, with Placido Domingo, Waltraud Meier, Franz-Josef Selig, Falk Struckmann and Wolfgang Bankl, 2005 (Deutsche Grammophon, stereo)

Instrumentation

★ Piccolo

★ 3 Flutes

★ 3 Oboes

★ Alto Oboe (a cor anglais is usually used today in place of Wagner's now obsolete alto oboe)

★ 3 Clarinets

★ Bass clarinet

★ 3 Bassoons

★ Contrabassoon

★ 4 Horns

★ 3 Trumpets

★ 3 Trombones

★ Contrabass tuba

★ Timpani

★ 2 Harps

★ strings

On- or Off-stage instruments

★ 6 Trumpets

★ 6 Trombones

★ Tenor drum

★ Bells

★ Thunder machine

The bells

For the entrance to the castle of Monsalvat in acts one and three, Wagner scored a repeating four-note theme, C G A E, to be played on bells. The theme is very low, ranging from the C in the bass clef to the E below it, and consequently it is impractical to use tubular bells or church bells. Wagner experimented with several options to get his desired effect, including gongs, metal drums, and a specially-built instrument called the Parsifal bell which was similar to a piano. He settled on the metal drums, which were in use at Bayreuth until 1940, when they were melted down by the Nazis for ammunition.
Modern performances of Parsifal usually use synthesized bells.

References

★ The Opera Goer's Complete Guide, Melitz, Leo, , , Best Books Ltd., London, 2001, ISBN 0-7222-6262-0

★ The Wagner Compendium: A Guide to Wagner's Life and Music, Millington, Barry (Ed.), , , Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 1992, ISBN 0-02-871359-1

★ The Wagner Companion, Burbidge, Peter & Sutton, Richard (Eds.), , , Faber and Faber Ltd., London, 1979, ISBN 0-571-11450-4

★ The Tristan Chord, Magee, Bryan, , , Owl Books, NY, 2002, ISBN 0-8050-7189-X (UK Title: ''Wagner and Philosophy'', Publisher Penguin Books Ltd, ISBN 0-14-029519-4)

Notes

1. Gregor-Dellin, Martin (1983)"Richard Wagner: his life, his work, his Century." William Collins, ISBN 0-00-216669-0 p506
2. Gutman, Robert (1968, revised 1990). "Richard Wagner : The Man, His Mind and His Music". Harcourt Brace Jovanovich ISBN 0-14-021168-3 pbk (1971), 015677615 4 pbk (1990)
3. See Wagner Controversies for more detail on Aryanism and Parsifal
4. Borchmeyer, Dieter (2003). "Drama and the World of Richard Wagner", Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11497-8
5. Gregor-Dellin, Martin (1983)''Ibid'' p 477 ff.
6. http://home.c2i.net/monsalvat/racism.htm
7. Gutman (1990), ''ibid'', page 406
8. Adorno, Theodor (2005). "In Search of Wagner". Verso ISBN 1-84-467500-9 pbk
9. http://home.c2i.net/monsalvat/banned.htm
10. Magee, Bryan (2002). The Tristan Chord. Owl Books, NY. ISBN 0-8050-7189-X. (UK Title: Wagner and Philosophy, Publisher Penguin Books Ltd, ISBN 0-14-029519-4)
11. ''Dokumente zur Entstehung und ersten Auffuhrung des Buhnenweihfestspiels Parsifal'' by Richard Wagner, Martin Geck, Egon Voss. Reviewed by Richard Evidon in Notes, 2nd Ser., Vol. 28, No. 4 (Jun., 1972), pp. 685-687.
12. David Lewin, "Amfortas' Prayer to Titurel and the Role of D in ''Parsifal'': The Tonal Spaces of the Drama and the Enharmonic Cb/B," in ''Studies in Music with Text'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 183-200.
13. Richard Cohn, "Maximally Smooth Cycles, Hexatonic Systems, and the Analysis of Late-Romantic Triadic Progressions," ''Music Analysis'' 15:1 (1996), 9-40.

External links

★ Monsalvat Derrick Everett's extensive website on all aspects of Parsifal.

★ Essay by Rolf May A Theosophical view of Parsifal

★ Complete English and German Libretto and Wagner's own stage descriptions

★ Complete vocal score of Parsifal

★ Wagner Operas. A comprehensive website featuring photographs of productions, recordings, librettos, and sound files.

★ Summary of Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival

★ Parsifal on Stage: a PDF by Katherine R. Syer

★ Richard Wagner - Parsifal. A gallery of historic postcards with motives from Richard Wagner's operas.

★ Reviews of Parsifal on record. by Geoffrey Riggs.