(Redirected from Old growth)'Old growth forest', also called 'primary forest', 'ancient forest', 'virgin forest', 'primeval forest' or '
ancient woodland' (in the UK), is an area of
forest that has attained great age and exhibits unique
biological features. Old growth forests typically contain large live
trees, large dead trees (sometimes called "
snags"), and large
logs. Old growth forests usually have multiple vertical layers of
vegetation representing a variety of tree
species and a variety of different age classes.
Forest regenerated after severe disruptions, such as
clear-cut or
fire is often referred to as
second-growth or ''regeneration'' until a long enough period has passed that the effects of the disturbance are no longer evident. Depending on the forest, this may take anywhere from a century to several millennia.
Hardwood forests of the eastern
United States can develop old-growth characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150-500 years.
Old growth forests may be home to rare species which are dependent on this now-rare habitat making them
ecologically significant.
Biodiversity may be higher or lower in old growth forests than in second-growth forests depending on specific circumstances. Logging in old growth forests is a contentious issue in many parts of the world.
Defining old growth
Concepts of ''old growth'' vary widely and are not always easily applied or reconcilable with one another.
Ancient woodland is a term used in the
United Kingdom to refer specifically to
woodland dating back to at least
1600 in
England and
Wales, (or
1750 in
Scotland). Before this, planting of new woodland was uncommon, so a wood present in 1600 was likely to have developed naturally. By contrast, in the U.S., ''old growth'' is often used to imply a forest has experienced little or no direct disruption during contemporary historical epochs and looks about as it would had Europeans not come to America. However, this criterion is difficult to apply, since it is often impossible to determine the history of human management (Euro-American or Native American). Further, since landscapes are naturally dynamic, there can be no certainty what forests would look like now had pre-Columbian regimes been uninterrupted. While it is generally agreed that old forests defined as old growth have not been subject to
logging, the role of natural disturbances in defining old growth is more ambiguous. Some definitions, for example, exclude recently burned forests, even where
fire has been part of the natural dynamics for millennia; in other cases, such natural disturbance is incorporated in the old growth concept. However, it is often difficult to distinguish between the ecological effects of natural disruption and human-caused disruption. Finally, even forests that have never experienced direct manipulation by Euro-Americans have been subjected to indirect effects in the form of
invasive species, climate change, and regional modifications of ecological
disturbance regimes (e.g., fire suppression).
Characteristics of old growth forest
Many botanists specifically define old growth in terms of meeting several criteria, under which system forests with sufficient age and minimal disturbance are considered old growth. Typical characteristics of old-growth forest include presence of older trees, minimal signs of human disturbance, mixed-age stands, presence of
canopy openings due to tree falls, pit-and-mound
topography, down wood in various stages of
decay, standing snags (dead trees), multi-layered canopies, intact
soils, a healthy
fungal ecosystem, and presence of
indicator species.
Mixed age
The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a relatively stable ecosystem in the long term. A
climax stand that is a uniformly-aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time-period to result in a new cycle of forest
succession. Thus, it is a less stable ecosystem.
Canopy openings
Canopy openings are essential in creating and maintaining the mixed-age stands. In addition, some
herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings although they are able to persist thereafter in the darker understory. Canopy openings created by natural disturbance events such as wind, ice, and mixed-severity fire retain significant structural enrichment from dead trees, whereas canopy opening created by logging are structurally simplified and deprived of the legacy structures that normally occur in healthy old-growth forests.
Topography
Pit-and-mound topography is the characteristic lay of the land after trees that have fallen due to natural causes create pits where roots have pulled out and mounds where the
root mass decays (with the soil clinging to the roots). These places provide, in the pit, fresh exposure of
humus-poor,
mineral-rich soil, often a place where moisture may collect and in which fallen leaves soon form a thick
organic layer and so able to nurture certain types of organisms, while the mound provides a place free from leaf inundation and saturation where other types of organisms may thrive.
Standing snags
Standing snags provide food sources and habitat for many types of organisms. Several species of
woodpeckers, in particular, must have standing snags available for feeding. The
spotted owl is well-known for needing standing snags for nesting habitat.
Decaying ground layer
Down wood contributes
carbon-rich organic material directly to the soil, in providing a substrate for
mosses and fungi and for
seedlings, and in creating microhabitats by creating relief on the forest floor. Down wood, which is significant in some ecosystems such as the temperate
rain forest of the
Pacific coast for providing a seedling substrate, is termed ''nurse logs''.
Soil
Intact soils harbor many life-forms that rely on them. Intact soils generally have very well-defined horizons, or
soil profiles. Different organisms may need certain well-defined soil horizons in order to live, while many trees need well-structured soils free of disturbance in order to thrive. Some herbaceous plants in northern hardwood forests must have thick duff layers (which are part of the soil profile).
Fungal ecosystems are essential for efficient ''
in-situ'' recycling of nutrients back into the entire ecosystem.
Importance of old growth forests
Due to the lack of severe disturbance, old growth is often associated with rich communities of
plants and
animals that may be dependent upon the unique environmental conditions created by these forests. The age of the oldest trees indicates that disturbance events during the long period of development were of moderate intensity at most and did not kill all vegetation. This long period of pseudostability allows the old growth forest to become occupied over time by a wide variety of species, some of them rare.
Old growth forest serves as a reservoir for species which cannot thrive or easily regenerate in younger forest, and as such can be used as a baseline for research.
Old growth forests also store large amounts of
carbon, both above and below ground. These forests collectively represent a significant pool of climate gases. Continued liquidation of these forests may increase the risk of global
climate change.
[1]
Logging in old growth forests
The large trees in old growth forests are economically valuable, so these forests have been subjected to aggressive
logging around the world. This has led to much controversy between logging companies and environmental groups, a great example of this being the controversy that developed around
Spotted Owls in the 1980s and 1990s.
In Australia, the regional forest agreement (RFA) attempted to prevent the clearfelling of defined "Old Growth Forests". This led to struggles over the definition of what constitutes "Old Growth",, For example in Western Australia, attempts by the timber industry to limit the area of Old Growth in the
karri forests of the Southern Forests Region, led to the creation of the
Western Australian Forests Alliance, and the splitting of the Liberal Government of Western Australia, and the election of the
Gallop Labor Government. Old Growth Forests in this region have now been placed inside
National Parks.
Locations of remaining intact forests
In 2006
Greenpeace identified that the world's remaining intact old growth forest area was distributed among the continents as follows :
[2]
★ 35 percent in
Latin America. The
Amazon rainforest is mainly located in
Brazil, which clears a larger area of forest annually than any other country in the world.
[3]
★ 28 percent in
North America. North America destroys 10,000 square kilometres of ancient forests every year. Many of the fragmented forests of southern Canada and the US lack adequate animal travel corridors and functioning ecosystems for large mammals.
[3]
★ 19 percent in Northern Asia. Northern Asia is home to the second largest boreal forest in the world. The Siberian tiger once roamed across huge areas of Northern Asia but today it can only be found in a small area of intact forest near the Sea of Japan. Only 400 remain in the wild, with twice as many in zoos.
[3]
★ 8 percent in Africa. Africa has lost most of its intact forest landscapes in the last 30 years. The timber industry is responsible for destroying huge areas of intact forest landscapes and continues to be the single largest threat to these areas.
★ 7 percent in South Asia Pacific. The Paradise Forests of Asia Pacific are being destroyed faster than any other forest on Earth. Much of the large intact forest landscapes have already been cut down, 72 percent in Indonesia and 60 percent in Papua New Guinea.
[3]
★ Less than 3 percent in Europe. In Europe, more than 150 square kilometres of intact forest landscapes are cleared every year and the last areas of the region’s intact forest landscapes in European Russia are shrinking rapidly.
[3]
References
1. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/235.htm IPCC Climate Change 2001:
Working Group I: The Scientific Basis
2. http://www.intactforests.org/ IntactForests.org
3. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/intact-forest-landscapes
4. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/intact-forest-landscapes
5. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/intact-forest-landscapes
6. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/intact-forest-landscapes
7. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/intact-forest-landscapes
See also
★
Ancient woodland
★
List of old growth forests
External links
★
Forest Conservation Portal - committed to ending ancient forest logging
★
Primal Nature: Preservation and restoration of old-growth forests in the eastern United States
★
Old growth locations in the eastern U.S.
★
Old growth definitions from the Pacific northwest
★
Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-Fir Forests
★
Old-growth forests in Slovenia
★
Profiles of special species that live in Old growth forests
★
Collection of Google map links of clear cuts in in or around old growth
★
"Of Spotted Owls, Old Growth, and New Policies: A History" (PDF)
★
Gifford Pinchot Task Force
★
Old-Growth Again Restoration Forestry
★
NW Old Growth Campaign
★
Umpqua Watersheds, Inc. information on western Oregon old-growth issues
★
Oregon Natural Resources Council information on Pacific Northwest old-growth issues
★
Forest Service
★
Experimental forestry designed to convert tree plantations to old-growth
★
Thinning To Enhance Biodiversity
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