OCEANOGRAPHY

'Oceanography' (from Ocean + Greek ''γράφειν'' = write), also called 'oceanology' or 'marine science', is the branch of Earth Sciences that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics.

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Ocean and atmosphere connections

Major oceanographic institutions and programs

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The study of oceanography may be divided into a number of branches:

★ 'Marine biology' or 'biological oceanography', the study of the plants, animals and microbes (biota) of the oceans and their ecological interaction;

★ 'Chemical oceanography' or 'marine chemistry', the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere;

★ 'Marine geology' or 'geological oceanography', the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics;

★ 'Physical oceanography' studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, waves, tides and currents;

★ 'Marine engineering' involves the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbors, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean wisely. ^[1]
These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the exact sciences or mathematics and then focus on applying their interdisciplinary knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.^[2]

History

Ocean currents (1911)

Early exploration of the oceans was limited to its surfaces and the few creatures that fishermen brought up in nets, but when Louis Antoine de Bougainville and James Cook carried out their explorations in the South Pacific, the seas themselves formed part of the reports.
James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks about currents in the Atlantic and Indian oceans during the late 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of atolls.
The steep slope beyond the continental shelves was not discovered until 1849. Matthew Fontaine Maury's ''Physical Geography of the Sea'', 1855 was the first textbook of oceanography. The first successful laying of Transatlantic telegraph cable in August 1858 confirmed the presence of an underwater "telegraphic plateau" mid-ocean ridge.
After the middle of the 19th century, scientific societies were processing a flood of new terrestrial botanical and zoological information. European natural historians began to sense the lack of more than anecdotal knowledge of the oceans.
In 1871, Under the recommendations of the Royal Society of London, the British government sponsored an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct scientific investigations. With that, oceanography began as a quantifiable science in 1872, when the Scots Charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition (1872–1876).
Other European and American nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by Sir John Murray and Johan Hjort was at that time the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever, and led to the classic 1912 book ''The Depths of the Ocean''.
Oceanographic institutes dedicated to the study of oceanography were founded. In the United States, these included the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. In Britain, there is a major research institution: National Oceanography Centre, Southampton. In Australia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, known as CMAR, is a leading center.
The first international organization of oceanography was created in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.
In 1921 Monaco formed the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). Then in 1966, the U.S. Congress created a ''National Council for Marine Resources and Engineering Development''. NOAA was in charge of exploring and studying all aspects of Oceanography. It also enabled the National Science Foundation to award 'Sea Grant College' funding to multi-disciplinary researchers in the field of oceanography.

Ocean and atmosphere connections

The study of the oceans is intimately linked to understanding global warming and related biosphere concerns.

Major oceanographic institutions and programs

International

★ American Geophysical Union

★ American Society of Limnology and Oceanography

Canada

★ Bedford Institute of Oceanography

France

★ IFREMER - French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea

★ Station biologique de Roscoff

References

1. Tom Garrison. "Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science" 5th edition. Thomson, 2005. Page 4.
2. Impact from the Deep; October 2006; Scientific American Magazine; by Peter D. Ward; 8 Page(s)

External links

★ Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) - Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is the world's largest private, nonprofit ocean research, engineering and education organization.

★ Scripps Institution of Oceanography

★ Ocean Explorer - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration.

★ NOAA, Ocean Explorer History

★ NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery - A rich collection of images, video, audio and podcast.

★ NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration

★ NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator - Plot and download ocean data

★ Exploring Marine Ecosystems - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History permanent exhibit

★ Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme - Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU

★ NEMO: Modeling framework for Oceanography

★ Oceanographycal and Hidrobiological manuscripts The Turkish Seas

★ Ocean Alliance: Conservation Biology

★ Matthias Tomczak's oceanography teaching site (Open source studying material)

★ Ocean World (Open source textbook)

★ SeaDiscovery - Marine Technology Reporter (technology science and engineering)

★ Oceanographers Net, Online portal for the Oceanographic community

★ Pew Institute fo Ocean Science - Protecting the world's oceans and the species that inhabit them.

★ Herdman, William A. - Founders of Oceanography, and their work - An introduction to the science of the sea

★ The National Office for Integrated and Sustained Ocean Observation

★ Timeline of Oceanography

★ WMO: Tropical Meteorology Research Programme

★ Ocean Motion and Surface Currents (NASA)

★ British Oceanographic Data Centre - a source of oceanographic data and information

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