(Redirected from Nuclear reactor)
:''This article is a subarticle of
Nuclear power''
A nuclear reactor is a device in which
nuclear chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a
nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled.
The most significant use of nuclear reactors is as an energy source for the generation of
electrical power (see
Nuclear power) and for the power in some ships (see
Nuclear marine propulsion). This is usually accomplished by methods that involve using
heat from the nuclear reaction to power
steam turbines. There are also other less common uses as discussed below.
How it works
The key components common to most types of nuclear power plants are:
★
Nuclear fuel
★
Neutron moderator
★
Coolant
★
Control rods
★
Pressure vessel
★
Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS)
★
Reactor Protective System (RPS)
★
Steam generators (not in
BWRs)
★
Containment building
★
Boiler feedwater pump
★
Steam turbine
★
Electrical generator
★
Condenser
Conventional thermal power plants all have a fuel source to provide heat. Examples are gas, coal, or oil. For a nuclear power plant, this heat is provided by
nuclear fission inside the nuclear reactor. When a relatively large
fissile atomic nucleus (usually
uranium-235 or
plutonium-239) is struck by a
neutron it forms two or more smaller nuclei as
fission products, releasing energy and neutrons in a process called
nuclear fission. The neutrons then trigger further fission. And so on. When this
nuclear chain reaction is controlled, the energy released can be used to heat water, produce steam and drive a
turbine that generates electricity. It should be noted that a
nuclear explosive involves an uncontrolled chain reaction, and the rate of fission in a reactor is not capable of reaching sufficient levels to trigger a
nuclear explosion (even if the fission reactions increased to a point of being out of control, it would
melt the reactor assembly rather than form a nuclear explosion).
Enriched uranium is uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 has been increased from that of uranium found in nature. Natural uranium is only 0.72% uranium-235, with the rest being mostly
uranium-238 (99.2745%) and a tiny fraction is
uranium-234 (0.0055%).
Reactor types
Classifications
Nuclear Reactors are classified by several methods, a brief outline of these classification schemes is provided.
Classification by type of nuclear reaction
★
Nuclear fission. Most reactors, and all commercial ones, are based on nuclear fission. They generally use
uranium as fuel, but research on using
thorium is ongoing. This article assumes that the technology is nuclear fission unless otherwise stated. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that are used to sustain the fission chain reaction:
★
★
Thermal reactors use slow or
thermal neutrons. Most power reactors are of this type. These are characterized by
neutron moderator materials that slow neutrons until they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, that is, until they are ''thermalized''. Thermal neutrons have a far higher probability of fissioning uranium-235, and a lower probability of capture by uranium-238 than the faster neutrons that result from fission. As well as the moderator, thermal reactors have fuel (fissionable material), containments, pressure vessels, shielding, and instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor's systems.
★
★
Fast neutron reactors use
fast neutrons to sustain the fission chain reaction. They are characterized by an absence of
moderating material. Initiating the chain reaction requires
enriched uranium (and/or enrichment with
plutonium 239), due to the lower probability of fissioning
U-235, and a higher probability of capture by
U-238 (as compared to a moderated,
thermal neutron). In general, fast reactors will produce less waste and the waste they do produce will have a vastly shorter
halflife, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of prototypes is continuing (see
fast breeder or
generation IV reactors).
★
Nuclear fusion.
Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally with
hydrogen as fuel. While not suitable for power production,
Farnsworth-Hirsch fusors are used to produce
neutron radiation.
★
Radioactive decay. Examples include
radioisotope thermoelectric generators and
atomic batteries, which generate heat and power by exploiting passive radioactive decay.
Classification by moderator material
Used by thermal reactors.
★
Graphite moderated reactors
★ Water moderated reactors
★
★
Heavy Water moderated reactors
★
★
Light water moderated reactors (LWRs). Light water reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operating temperatures if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That
negative feedback stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalised than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, these types can use
natural uranium/unenriched fuel.
Classification by coolant
★
Water cooled reactor
★
★ Pressure water reactor
★
★
★ A large
pressure vessel. Most commercial and naval reactors use pressure vessels. Pressure vessels are almost always lined up to reactors and are only isolated from reactors during special maintenance or tests.
★
★
★ Pressurised channels. Channel-type reactors can be refuelled under load.
★
★ Boiling water reactor
★
★
Pool-type reactor
★
Liquid metal cooled reactor. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. All fast neutron reactors that have been used for power generation have been liquid metal cooled reactors, but research continues in gas cooled reactors.
★
Gas cooled reactor are cooled by a circulating inert gas, usually
helium.
Nitrogen and
carbon dioxide have also been used. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Some reactors run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine. Older designs usually run the gas through a
heat exchanger to make steam for a steam turbine.
Classification by generation
★
Generation I reactor
★
Generation II reactor
★
Generation III reactor
★
Generation IV reactor
Classification by phase of fuel
★ Solid fueled
★ Fluid fueled
★
Gas fueled
Classification by use
★ Electricity
★
★
Power plants
★ Propulsion, see
nuclear propulsion
★
★
Nuclear marine propulsion
★
★ Various proposed forms of
rocket propulsion
★ Other uses of heat
★
★
Desalination
★
★ Heat for domestic and industrial
heating
★
★ Hydrogen production for use in a
hydrogen economy
★ Production reactors for
transmutation of elements
★
★
Breeder reactors.
Fast breeder reactors are capable of enriching Uranium during the fission chain reaction (by converting
fertile U-238 to Pu-239) which allows an operational fast reactor to generate more
fissile material than it consumes. Thus, a breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with
natural or even
depleted uranium.
[1]
★
★ Creating various
radioactive isotopes, such as
americium for use in
smoke detectors, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment.
★
★ Production of materials for
nuclear weapons such as
weapons-grade plutonium
★ Providing a source of
neutron radiation and
positron radiation (e.g.
Neutron activation analysis and
Potassium-argon dating)
★
Research reactors : Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel.
[2]
Current technologies
There are two types of nuclear power in current use:
# The
nuclear fission reactor produces heat through a controlled
nuclear chain reaction in a
critical mass of
fissile material.
All current
nuclear power plants are critical fission reactors, which are the focus of this article. The output of fission reactors is controllable. There are several subtypes of critical fission reactors, which can be classified as Generation I,
Generation II and
Generation III. All reactors will be compared to the
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), as that is the standard modern reactor design.
#; A.
Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)
#: These are reactors cooled and moderated by high pressure liquid (even at extreme temperatures) water. They are the majority of current reactors, and are generally considered the safest and most reliable technology currently in large scale deployment, although
Three Mile Island (known for the
Harrisburg accident) is a reactor of this type. This is a
thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the
Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor and the
European Pressurized Reactor.
United States Naval reactors are of this type.
#; B.
Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
#: These are reactors cooled and moderated by water, under slightly lower pressure. The water is allowed to boil in the reactor. The thermal efficiency of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. Unfortunately, the boiling water puts more stress on many of the components, and increases the risk that radioactive water may escape in an accident. These reactors make up a substantial percentage of modern reactors. This is a thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the
Advanced Boiling Water Reactor and the
Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor.
#; C.
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
#: A
Canadian design, (known as
CANDU) these reactors are
heavy-water-cooled and -moderated Pressurized-Water reactors. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fuelled with natural
uranium and are thermal neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWR's have been built in Canada,
Argentina,
China,
India (pre-NPT),
Pakistan (pre-NPT),
Romania, and
South Korea. India also operates a number of PHWR's, often termed 'CANDU-derivatives', built after the 1974
Smiling Buddha nuclear weapon test.
#; D. Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (
RBMK)
#: A Soviet Union design, built to produce plutonium as well as power. RBMKs are water cooled with a
graphite moderator. RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable On-Load and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and too large to have
containment buildings making them dangerous in the case of an accident. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the
Chernobyl accident. RBMK reactors are generally considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. The Chernobyl plant had four RBMK reactors.
#; E. Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR) and
Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGCR)
#: These are generally graphite moderated and
CO2 cooled. They can have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the
United Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e.
Magnox stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGCRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor core.
#; F.
Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)
#: This is a reactor design that is cooled by liquid metal, totally unmoderated, and produces more fuel than it consumes. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures.
Superphénix in France was a reactor of this type, as was
Fermi-I in the United States. The
Monju reactor in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and is approved for restart in 2008. All three use/used liquid
sodium. These reactors are
fast neutron, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types:
#:;
Lead cooled
#:: Using
lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a
lead-bismuth eutectic mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead.
#:;
Sodium cooled
#:: Most LMFBRs are of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions wouldn't be vastly more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a
SCWR or PWR.
#; G.
Aqueous Homogeneous Reactor
# The
radioisotope thermoelectric generator produces heat through passive
radioactive decay.
#: Some radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been created to power space probes (for example, the
Cassini probe), some
lighthouses in the former
Soviet Union, and some pacemakers. The heat output of these generators diminishes with time; the heat is converted to electricity utilising the
thermoelectric effect.
Advanced reactors
More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development.
[3]Some are evolutionary from the
PWR,
BWR and
PHWR designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the
Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR), two of which are now operating with others are under construction, and the planned
passively safe ESBWR and
AP1000 units (see
Nuclear Power 2010 Program).
★ The
Integral Fast Reactor was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors. The link at the end of this paragraph references an interview with Dr. Charles Till, former director of Argonne National Laboratory West in Idaho and outlines the Integral Fast Reactor and its advantages over current reactor design, especially in the areas of safety, efficient nuclear fuel usage and reduced waste.
[4]
★ The
Pebble Bed Reactor, a
High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGCR), is designed so high temperatures reduce power output by
doppler broadening of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium, which cannot have steam explosions, and which does not easily absorb neutrons and become radioactive, or dissolve contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that might aid safety is that the fuel-balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one-by-one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive.
★
SSTAR, 'S'mall, 'S'ealed, 'T'ransportable, 'A'utonomous 'R'eactor is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with.
★ The
Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR) is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator - this design is still in development.
★
Subcritical reactors are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the
Energy amplifier.
★ Thorium based reactors. It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, Thorium, which is more plentiful than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste.
★
★
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor — A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
★
★
KAMINI — A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built by
BARC and
IGCAR Uses thorium.
★
★ India is also building a bigger scale FBTR or fast breeder thorium reactor to harness the power with the use of thorium.
Generation IV reactors
Generation IV reactors are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. These designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.
[5]
★
Gas cooled fast reactor
★
Lead cooled fast reactor
★
Molten salt reactor
★
Sodium-cooled fast reactor
★
Supercritical water reactor (SCWR)
:The Supercritical Water-cooled Reactor combines higher efficiency than a GCR with the safety of a PWR, though it is perhaps more technically challenging than either. The water is pressurized and heated past its
critical point, until there is no difference between the liquid and gas states. An SCWR is similar to a BWR, except there is no boiling (as the water is critical), and the thermal efficiency is higher as the water behaves more like a classical gas. This is an epithermal neutron reactor design.
★
Very high temperature reactor
Generation V+ reactors
Designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though such reactors could be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics, practicality, or safety.
★ Liquid Core reactor. A closed loop
liquid core nuclear rocket, where the fissile material is molten uranium cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel.
★ Gas core reactor. A closed loop version of the
nuclear lightbulb rocket, where the fissile material is gassious uranium-hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. In theory, using UH6 as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable neutron flux.
★ Gas core EM reactor. As in the Gas Core reactor, but with photovoltaic arrays converting the UV light directly to electricity.
★
Fission fragment reactor
Fusion reactors
Controlled
nuclear fusion could in principle be used in
fusion power plants to produce power without the complexities of handling
actinides, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but as yet none has 'produced' more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The
ITER project is currently leading the effort to commercialize fusion power.
Nuclear fuel cycle
Main articles: Nuclear fuel cycle
Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and
enriched uranium. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see
MOX). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly
reprocessed and disposed of is known as the
nuclear fuel cycle.
Under 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235
isotope and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel.
Enrichment involves increasing the percentage of U-235 and is usually done by means of
gaseous diffusion or
gas centrifuge. The enriched result is then converted into
uranium dioxide powder, which is pressed and fired onto pellet form. These pellets are stacked into tubes which are then sealed and called
fuel rods. Many of these fuel rods are used in each nuclear reactor.
Most BWR and PWR commercial reactors use uranium enriched to about 4% U-235, and some commercial reactors with a high
neutron economy do not require the fuel to be enriched at all (that is, they can use natural uranium). According to the
International Atomic Energy Agency there are at least 100
research reactors in the world which use highly enriched, weapons-grade uranium (90% enrichment) as their fuel. Because of the risk of theft of this fuel, which could be potentially turned into a nuclear weapon without unsurmountable difficulty, for many years there have been many campaigns to attempt to convert reactors of this type to run on low -enriched uranium which poses less of a direct proliferation threat.
[6]
It should be noted that fissionable U-235 and non-fissionable U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportional to their absolute
temperature, a thermal neutron has the best opportunity to fission U-235 when it is moving at this same vibrational speed. On the other hand, U-238 is more likely to capture a neutron when the neutron is moving very fast. This U-239 atom will soon decay into plutonium-239, which is another fuel. Pu-239 is a viable fuel and must be accounted for even when a highly enriched uranium fuel is used. Plutonium fissions will dominate the U-235 fissions in some reactors, especially after the initial loading of U-235 is spent. Plutonium is fissionable with both fast and thermal neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs.
Most reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a
fast breeder reactor, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into Pu-239, "breeding" fuel.
Fueling of nuclear reactors
The amount of energy in the reservoir of
nuclear fuel is frequently expressed in terms of "full-power days," which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling outage times) is related to the amount of
fissile uranium-235 (U-235) contained in the fuel assemblies at the beginning of the cycle. A higher percentage of U-235 in the core at the beginning of a cycle will permit the reactor to be run for a greater number of full-power days.
At the end of the operating cycle, the fuel in some of the assemblies is "spent," and is discharged and replaced with new (fresh) fuel assemblies. Although in practice, it is the buildup of
reaction poisons in nuclear fuel that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor; long before all possible fissions have taken place, the buildup of long-lived neutron absorbing fission products damps out the chain reaction. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-fourth for a boiling-water reactor and one-third for a pressurized-water reactor.
Not all reactors need to be shut down for refueling; for example,
pebble bed reactors,
RBMK reactors,
molten salt reactors,
Magnox,
AGR and
CANDU reactors allow fuel to be shifted through the reactor while it is running. In a CANDU reactor, this also allows individual fuel elements to be moved about within the reactor core to places that are best suited to the amount of U-235 in the fuel element.
The amount of energy extracted from nuclear fuel is called its "burn up," which is expressed in terms of the heat energy produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burn up is commonly expressed as megawatt days thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal.
Safety
:''See also:
Nuclear safety in the U.S.''
Natural nuclear reactors
Main articles: Natural nuclear fission reactor
Although mankind has only tamed nuclear power recently, the first nuclear reactors were naturally occurring. A
natural nuclear fission reactor can occur under certain circumstances that mimic the conditions in a constructed reactor.
[7] Fifteen natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the
Oklo mine in
Gabon,
West Africa. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist
Francis Perrin, they are collectively known as the
Oklo Fossil Reactors. These reactors ran for approximately 150 million years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by
Paul Kuroda at the
University of Arkansas[8][9]
Such reactors can no longer form on Earth: radioactive decay over this immense time span has reduced the proportion of U-235 in naturally occurring uranium to below the amount required to sustain a chain reaction.
The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years.
These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic radioactive waste disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment.
See also
★
Auxiliary feedwater
★
Containment building
★
Future energy development
★
David Hahn
★
List of nuclear reactors
★
List of United States Naval reactors
★
Nuclear marine propulsion
★
Nuclear physics
★
Nuclear power by country
★
Nuclear Reactor Operator Badge
★
Nuclear reactor physics
★
SCRAM
★
Safety engineering
★
Technology assessment
References
1. ; see "Fuel Cycles and Sustainability"
2. World Nuclear Association Information Brief -Research Reactors
3. Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors
4.
5. Generation IV Nuclear Reactors
6. IAEA, Improving Security at World's Nuclear Research Reactors: Technical and Other Issues Focus of June Symposium in Norway (7 June 2006).
7. Video of physics lecture - at Google Video; a natural nuclear reactor is mentioned at 42:40 mins into the video
8. Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors
9. Oklo's Natural Fission Reactors
External links
★
''Boiling Water Reactor Plant Technology Education'' - Includes the PC-based BWR reactor simulation.
★
World Nuclear Fuel Facilities
★
How Nuclear Power Works - Howstuffworks.com
★
The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor -
Whyfiles.org - On a bed of pebbles
★
World Nuclear Association - How it Works
★
A Debate: Is Nuclear Power The Solution to Global Warming?
★
Union of Concerned Scientists, Concerns re: US nuclear reactor program
★
''The Canadian Nuclear FAQ'' - a very information-rich resource about Canadian CANDU reactors.
★
Annotated bibliography on Nuclear Reactors from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
★
Fixed Bed Nuclear Reactor
★
Freeview Video 'Nuclear Power Plants - What's the Problem' A Royal Institution Lecture by John Collier by the Vega Science Trust.
★
U.S. plants and operators
★
SCK.CEN Belgian Nuclear Research Centre in Mol.
★
Glossary of Nuclear Terms
★
An Interactive VR Panorama of the cooling towers at Temelin Nuclear Power Plant, Czech Republic
★
Nuclear Energy Institute – How it Works: Electric Power Generation
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