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EspañolNJáL'S SAGA
(Redirected from Njalssaga)
:''For the film, see Brennu-Njálssaga (film).''
'Njal's Saga' (also known as '"Brennu-Njáls saga"' or '"The Story of the burning of Njáll"') is arguably the most famous of the Sagas of Icelanders. Among Icelanders, the saga is most often referred to simply as 'Njála'.
This epic of Icelandic literature from the 13th century describes the progress of a series of blood feuds. Its author is believed to have been an inhabitant of southeast Iceland; little more is known. It has a deservedly high reputation as the greatest of the Icelanders' sagas. The breadth of its subject matter and the references within the text indicate that the author must have been extremely well-read and literate.
It details events which were supposed to have occurred between 930 and 1020, and thus covers the period of Christian conversion in 999, as well as detailing events at the Battle of Clontarf outside Dublin in 1014.
Although it agrees in broad terms with known history and refers to many minor locations which can still be found along south Iceland, scholars continue to search for clues to indicate which portions accurately reflect events and which reflect the art of storytelling. At worst it is a historic novel giving a vivid picture of an unfamiliar system. There is evidence for the central event of the burning of Njáll. It shows the destructive nature of blood-feuds, and the methods used by the Icelandic Commonwealth to try to resolve them. It also extends beyond Iceland, including a brief and not-very-historic description of the Battle of Clontarf and the death of Brian Boru.
The protagonist's name, in correct Icelandic spelling, is ''Njáll''. Arguably the book should, in English, therefore be called "Njáll's Saga". In practice the protagonist is commonly referred to as "Njal" in English, and the book "Njal's Saga". This probably arises from a misunderstanding of the correct Icelandic ''Njáls Saga'' (no apostrophe), since the genitive (possessive) form of ''Njáll'' in Icelandic is ''Njáls'' (no apostrophe). It seems that by back-formation from the genitive, ''Njáll'' has been anglicized to ''Njal'' (no accent). The difference is significant, since in Icelandic a double-L is usually pronounced quite differently from a single-L.
Some English translations also anglicize other personal names, for example removing the masculine nominative ending -ur from those names that have it. But it is not otherwise common or established for English speakers to treat Icelandic names in this fashion.
The name is Gaelic in origin, coming from "Niall", which is often anglicised as "Neil".
With a work as rich and complex as Njal’s Saga it is impossible to convey more than an inkling of its qualities in a summary of the plot. It cannot show the author’s skill in developing character, or his sense of drama, or of humour, or of place.
The first episode covers the period from the betrothal of Hrútur Herjólfsson and Unnur to the ugly legacy of their divorce. We are shown his exploits in Norway, where he gains honour at court and in battle, but ruins his subsequent marriage by becoming the lover of the aging queen mother Gunnhildr. When he denies having a woman in Iceland she curses him so that he is unable to consummate the marriage. After Unnur divorces him he retains the dowry by challenging Unnur’s father to combat. While this conforms to Icelandic law it offends justice.
The first chapter has given one of Hrútur’s insights when he comments of his beautiful niece, “I do not know how thieves’ eyes came into the family”. The saga next pursues the career of this niece, Hallgerður, through her first two marriages. Both husbands die by the axe of Hallgerður’s doting, brutish foster-father. While Hallgerður provokes the first death the second she does not, although it follows from a disagreement between her and her husband. It is Hrútur who, despite the family ties, avenges the death by killing Þjóstólfur.
Gunnar Hámundarson and Njáll Þorgeirsson (Njal) are now introduced. Gunnar is a man of outstanding prowess, and Njal of outstanding sagacity; they are close friends. When Gunnar is obliged to revive Unnur’s dowry-claim against Hrútur, Njal gives him the means by which this is done. By skilful play-acting Gunnar begins the legal process in Hrútur’s own house. He follows Hrútur’s doubtful example when it comes to court, and Hrútur, who has won by threat of violence, loses to threat of violence. Despite humiliation he foresees future links with Gunnar.
This comes about when Gunnar returns with fresh honours from a trip to Scandinavia. He goes to the Althing – the annual assembly – in new splendour, and meets Hallgerður. They fall in love and are soon betrothed, despite Hrútur’s warnings about Hallgerður's character, and Njal's misgivings.
Njal soon proves prescient when Hallgerður and Njal’s wife, Bergþóra, clash. Hallgerður charms a number of doubtful characters into killing members of Njal’s household, but the spirited Bergþóra exacts blood revenge. After each killing, their husbands make financial settlements according to the status of the victims. The fifth victim is Þórður Freedmansson, foster-father of the Njalssons; Þráinn Sigfússon, Gunnar’s uncle and Hallgerður's son-in-law, accompanies the killers. When the feud closes and settlements are made Þráinn’s presence at that killing is the pressure which will erupt in time.
Hallgerður now uses one of her dubious followers to burgle the home of a churlish man named Otkel. Gunnar immediately seeks to make amends, but handsome offers are not accepted. A lawsuit is started against him which, with Njal’s help, he wins, gaining great credit. But in the course of remonstrating with Hallgerður about the burglary he slaps her.
This is followed by Otkell wounding Gunnar accidentally. But insult follows injury and Gunnar, still reluctantly, sets out to avenge himself. With only belated help from his brother Kolskeggur he kills Otkell and his companions.
Under Njal’s influence a new settlement is arranged, and Gunnar’s esteem grows. But Njal warns him that this will be the start of his career of killings.
Next Gunnar accepts a challenge to a horse-fight from a man called Starkaður. In the course of the fight his opponents cheat, and Gunnar find himself in a fresh squabble. Njal tries to mediate but Þórgeir Starkaðsson refuses this. During a journey with his two brothers Gunnar is ambushed by Starkaður and his allies. The battle finishes with fourteen attackers dead – but also Gunnar’s brother Hjörtur.
Worming through all these troubles is Unnur’s son Mörður Valgarðsson who envies and hates Gunnar, using other men to attain his aims. He has learned that Njal has prophesied that Gunnar’s death will follow if he kills twice in the same family and subsequently breaks the settlement. He is one of the instigators of the next attack on Gunnar by persons dissatisfied in the settlement. Again Gunnar fights successfully, but he kills a second man in the same family. The settlement that follows entails that Gunnar and Kolskeggur leave Iceland for three years.
Arrangements are made for exile. But as Gunnar leaves home his horse stumbles. He looks homeward and, touched by the beauty of his homeland, resolves not to leave Iceland, thus becoming an outlaw. He goes about as though nothing has changed but his enemies gather in time, Mörður among them, for revenge. He defends himself in his home until one of his enemies cuts his bowstring. Hallgerður then ensures her lasting infamy by refusing to give him strands of her hair to restring his bow – as a revenge for the slap he once gave her. His enemies resist Mörður’s proposal of burning him in the house as shameful, but eventually they have to haul the roof off to allow them to kill Gunnar. Njal’s son Skarp-Héðinn assists Hogni Gunnarsson in a few acts of vengeance before a settlement is achieved.
Scandinavian rulers are again brought in, to honour two Icelandic expeditions: those of Þráinn Sigfússon and of Njal’s two younger sons. Both return with honour enhanced but with company to suit them. Þráinn brings back the malevolent Betrayal-Hrappur; the Njalssons the noble Kári, who marries their sister. But the Njalssons also bring back a grievance about the way in which the earl of Norway, Haakan Jarl, has treated them, somewhat unreasonably blaming Þráinn. While Njal says they have been foolish in raising the matter he advises them to publicise it so that it will be seen as a matter of honour. Thrain refuses a settlement, and his retainers, including Hallgerður, on her last appearance, insult them.
The most dramatic of the saga’s battles follows. The Njalssons, and Kári, prepare to ambush Þráinn and his larger following. The way of crossing the river between them is a bridge of ice. Skarphéðinn overtakes his brothers, leaps the river, and goes into a slide on the ice past Þráinn, whom he beheads in passing. Between them the attackers kill four, including Hrapp.
Þráinn’s brother Ketill is married to Njal’s daughter, and between them they bring about a settlement. Wishing to remove any cause of contention Njal adopts Þráinn’s son Höskuldur as his foster-son. He grows up in Njal’s household, and is loved and favoured by him. When he is fully grown Njal obtains for him a chieftaincy, and a suitable wife, Hildigunn.
At this point the saga recounts the conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 999 AD.
Mörður Valgarðsson now finds Höskuldur becoming such a successful chief that his own chieftaincy is declining. He sets the Njalssons against Höskuldur; the tragedy of the saga is that they are so susceptible to his promptings that they, with Mörður and Kári, murder him as he sows in his field. As one character says, “Höskuldur was killed for less than no reason; all men mourn his death; but none more than Njal, his foster-father”.
Flosi, Höskuldur’s wife’s uncle, takes up the proceedings against the killers, and seeks help from powerful chieftains. He is under pressure from Hildigunn to accept nothing less than blood vengeance. The Njalssons find themselves at the Althing in the demeaning business of pleading for help. Skarp-Héðinn has become grimly fatalistic, and insults many whom they ask for help.
After legal sparring arbitrators are chosen, including Snorri, who proposes a settlement three time the usual compensation for Höskuldur. This is so much that it can only be paid by the arbitrators and many at the Althing contributing. The great collection is gathered, and Njal adds a gift of a fancy cloak. Flosi takes the fact that this is a unisex garment as an insult, and the settlement breaks down.
All leave the Althing and prepare themselves, amid portents and prophecies, for the showdown. One hundred men descend on Njal’s home, Bergthorsknoll, (Bergþórshvoll), to find it defended by about thirty. Any victory for Flosi will be at some cost. But Njal makes the foolish suggestion that his sons defend from within the house, and they, conscious that it is foolish, submit. Flosi and his men set fire to the building.
Both the innocent and the guilty are surrounded. Flosi allows the innocent to escape but Njal, Bergþóra, and their grandson Þórður, stay in the building to die with the guilty. Helgi is killed in an attempt to escape. Eventually ten people die – but they do not include Kári who has escaped under cover of the smoke. Flosi knows immediately that there is someone to exact vengeance for the Burning.
At the Althing two troops gather. Legal action is taken against the Burners, and there is a legal joust between the parties. Þórhall, Njal’s foster-son, has absorbed his legal training, but he is hampered by physical reactions to the stress. But eventually when legal action seems to be failing he lances his boil with his spear and begins the fighting. Flosi’s men are driven back until Snorri leads an intervention to separate the parties. In the confusion several are killed including Ljótur, Flosi’s brother-in-law.
Ljótur’s father, Hallur of Síða, takes advantage of the truce to appeal for peace, and, in a move that marks a change from Viking to Christian thinking, seeks no compensation for his son. Moved by this, all but Kári and Njal’s nephew Þórgeir conclude a settlement, while everyone contributes to compensation for Ljótur. The Burners are exiled for three years.
Before the Sigfússons have reached home Kári attacks them, and most the rest of the saga describes his vengeance of the Burning. He is supported initially by Þórgeir and then by a comical braggart named Björn. He pursues them to Orkney and Wales. The most dramatic moment is when he breaks into the earl’s hall in Orkney and kills one who is giving a lying account of the events.
After a pilgrimage to Rome Flosi returns to Iceland. Kári follows, and is shipwrecked near Flosi’s home. Testing Flosi’s nobility he goes to him for help, and they arrange a final peace. Kári marries Höskuldur’s widow. Finally, there is a full reconciliation.
There is at least one reference to Njal in the Monty Python oeuvre, in which it is comically pronounced nn-jarl (the J as in "jar").
★ Norse saga
★ Icelandic text with English & French translations at the Icelandic Saga Database
★ An online public domain edition of Njal's Saga: George Dasent's English translation
★ An online public domain edition of Njal's Saga—George Dasent's English translation
★ Modernized Icelandic text
★ The official Njal's Saga website—The Njála museum in Hvolsvöllur, Iceland
:''For the film, see Brennu-Njálssaga (film).''
'Njal's Saga' (also known as '"Brennu-Njáls saga"' or '"The Story of the burning of Njáll"') is arguably the most famous of the Sagas of Icelanders. Among Icelanders, the saga is most often referred to simply as 'Njála'.
Overview
This epic of Icelandic literature from the 13th century describes the progress of a series of blood feuds. Its author is believed to have been an inhabitant of southeast Iceland; little more is known. It has a deservedly high reputation as the greatest of the Icelanders' sagas. The breadth of its subject matter and the references within the text indicate that the author must have been extremely well-read and literate.
It details events which were supposed to have occurred between 930 and 1020, and thus covers the period of Christian conversion in 999, as well as detailing events at the Battle of Clontarf outside Dublin in 1014.
Although it agrees in broad terms with known history and refers to many minor locations which can still be found along south Iceland, scholars continue to search for clues to indicate which portions accurately reflect events and which reflect the art of storytelling. At worst it is a historic novel giving a vivid picture of an unfamiliar system. There is evidence for the central event of the burning of Njáll. It shows the destructive nature of blood-feuds, and the methods used by the Icelandic Commonwealth to try to resolve them. It also extends beyond Iceland, including a brief and not-very-historic description of the Battle of Clontarf and the death of Brian Boru.
Linguistic Note: Anglicization of Njáll to Njal
The protagonist's name, in correct Icelandic spelling, is ''Njáll''. Arguably the book should, in English, therefore be called "Njáll's Saga". In practice the protagonist is commonly referred to as "Njal" in English, and the book "Njal's Saga". This probably arises from a misunderstanding of the correct Icelandic ''Njáls Saga'' (no apostrophe), since the genitive (possessive) form of ''Njáll'' in Icelandic is ''Njáls'' (no apostrophe). It seems that by back-formation from the genitive, ''Njáll'' has been anglicized to ''Njal'' (no accent). The difference is significant, since in Icelandic a double-L is usually pronounced quite differently from a single-L.
Some English translations also anglicize other personal names, for example removing the masculine nominative ending -ur from those names that have it. But it is not otherwise common or established for English speakers to treat Icelandic names in this fashion.
The name is Gaelic in origin, coming from "Niall", which is often anglicised as "Neil".
Plot
With a work as rich and complex as Njal’s Saga it is impossible to convey more than an inkling of its qualities in a summary of the plot. It cannot show the author’s skill in developing character, or his sense of drama, or of humour, or of place.
Hrútur and Hallgerður
The first episode covers the period from the betrothal of Hrútur Herjólfsson and Unnur to the ugly legacy of their divorce. We are shown his exploits in Norway, where he gains honour at court and in battle, but ruins his subsequent marriage by becoming the lover of the aging queen mother Gunnhildr. When he denies having a woman in Iceland she curses him so that he is unable to consummate the marriage. After Unnur divorces him he retains the dowry by challenging Unnur’s father to combat. While this conforms to Icelandic law it offends justice.
The first chapter has given one of Hrútur’s insights when he comments of his beautiful niece, “I do not know how thieves’ eyes came into the family”. The saga next pursues the career of this niece, Hallgerður, through her first two marriages. Both husbands die by the axe of Hallgerður’s doting, brutish foster-father. While Hallgerður provokes the first death the second she does not, although it follows from a disagreement between her and her husband. It is Hrútur who, despite the family ties, avenges the death by killing Þjóstólfur.
Gunnar and Njal
Gunnar Hámundarson and Njáll Þorgeirsson (Njal) are now introduced. Gunnar is a man of outstanding prowess, and Njal of outstanding sagacity; they are close friends. When Gunnar is obliged to revive Unnur’s dowry-claim against Hrútur, Njal gives him the means by which this is done. By skilful play-acting Gunnar begins the legal process in Hrútur’s own house. He follows Hrútur’s doubtful example when it comes to court, and Hrútur, who has won by threat of violence, loses to threat of violence. Despite humiliation he foresees future links with Gunnar.
This comes about when Gunnar returns with fresh honours from a trip to Scandinavia. He goes to the Althing – the annual assembly – in new splendour, and meets Hallgerður. They fall in love and are soon betrothed, despite Hrútur’s warnings about Hallgerður's character, and Njal's misgivings.
Njal soon proves prescient when Hallgerður and Njal’s wife, Bergþóra, clash. Hallgerður charms a number of doubtful characters into killing members of Njal’s household, but the spirited Bergþóra exacts blood revenge. After each killing, their husbands make financial settlements according to the status of the victims. The fifth victim is Þórður Freedmansson, foster-father of the Njalssons; Þráinn Sigfússon, Gunnar’s uncle and Hallgerður's son-in-law, accompanies the killers. When the feud closes and settlements are made Þráinn’s presence at that killing is the pressure which will erupt in time.
Gunnar's Feuds
Hallgerður now uses one of her dubious followers to burgle the home of a churlish man named Otkel. Gunnar immediately seeks to make amends, but handsome offers are not accepted. A lawsuit is started against him which, with Njal’s help, he wins, gaining great credit. But in the course of remonstrating with Hallgerður about the burglary he slaps her.
This is followed by Otkell wounding Gunnar accidentally. But insult follows injury and Gunnar, still reluctantly, sets out to avenge himself. With only belated help from his brother Kolskeggur he kills Otkell and his companions.
Under Njal’s influence a new settlement is arranged, and Gunnar’s esteem grows. But Njal warns him that this will be the start of his career of killings.
Next Gunnar accepts a challenge to a horse-fight from a man called Starkaður. In the course of the fight his opponents cheat, and Gunnar find himself in a fresh squabble. Njal tries to mediate but Þórgeir Starkaðsson refuses this. During a journey with his two brothers Gunnar is ambushed by Starkaður and his allies. The battle finishes with fourteen attackers dead – but also Gunnar’s brother Hjörtur.
Worming through all these troubles is Unnur’s son Mörður Valgarðsson who envies and hates Gunnar, using other men to attain his aims. He has learned that Njal has prophesied that Gunnar’s death will follow if he kills twice in the same family and subsequently breaks the settlement. He is one of the instigators of the next attack on Gunnar by persons dissatisfied in the settlement. Again Gunnar fights successfully, but he kills a second man in the same family. The settlement that follows entails that Gunnar and Kolskeggur leave Iceland for three years.
Arrangements are made for exile. But as Gunnar leaves home his horse stumbles. He looks homeward and, touched by the beauty of his homeland, resolves not to leave Iceland, thus becoming an outlaw. He goes about as though nothing has changed but his enemies gather in time, Mörður among them, for revenge. He defends himself in his home until one of his enemies cuts his bowstring. Hallgerður then ensures her lasting infamy by refusing to give him strands of her hair to restring his bow – as a revenge for the slap he once gave her. His enemies resist Mörður’s proposal of burning him in the house as shameful, but eventually they have to haul the roof off to allow them to kill Gunnar. Njal’s son Skarp-Héðinn assists Hogni Gunnarsson in a few acts of vengeance before a settlement is achieved.
Kári and the Njalssons
Scandinavian rulers are again brought in, to honour two Icelandic expeditions: those of Þráinn Sigfússon and of Njal’s two younger sons. Both return with honour enhanced but with company to suit them. Þráinn brings back the malevolent Betrayal-Hrappur; the Njalssons the noble Kári, who marries their sister. But the Njalssons also bring back a grievance about the way in which the earl of Norway, Haakan Jarl, has treated them, somewhat unreasonably blaming Þráinn. While Njal says they have been foolish in raising the matter he advises them to publicise it so that it will be seen as a matter of honour. Thrain refuses a settlement, and his retainers, including Hallgerður, on her last appearance, insult them.
The most dramatic of the saga’s battles follows. The Njalssons, and Kári, prepare to ambush Þráinn and his larger following. The way of crossing the river between them is a bridge of ice. Skarphéðinn overtakes his brothers, leaps the river, and goes into a slide on the ice past Þráinn, whom he beheads in passing. Between them the attackers kill four, including Hrapp.
Þráinn’s brother Ketill is married to Njal’s daughter, and between them they bring about a settlement. Wishing to remove any cause of contention Njal adopts Þráinn’s son Höskuldur as his foster-son. He grows up in Njal’s household, and is loved and favoured by him. When he is fully grown Njal obtains for him a chieftaincy, and a suitable wife, Hildigunn.
At this point the saga recounts the conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 999 AD.
Höskuldur and Flosi; the Burning
Mörður Valgarðsson now finds Höskuldur becoming such a successful chief that his own chieftaincy is declining. He sets the Njalssons against Höskuldur; the tragedy of the saga is that they are so susceptible to his promptings that they, with Mörður and Kári, murder him as he sows in his field. As one character says, “Höskuldur was killed for less than no reason; all men mourn his death; but none more than Njal, his foster-father”.
Flosi, Höskuldur’s wife’s uncle, takes up the proceedings against the killers, and seeks help from powerful chieftains. He is under pressure from Hildigunn to accept nothing less than blood vengeance. The Njalssons find themselves at the Althing in the demeaning business of pleading for help. Skarp-Héðinn has become grimly fatalistic, and insults many whom they ask for help.
After legal sparring arbitrators are chosen, including Snorri, who proposes a settlement three time the usual compensation for Höskuldur. This is so much that it can only be paid by the arbitrators and many at the Althing contributing. The great collection is gathered, and Njal adds a gift of a fancy cloak. Flosi takes the fact that this is a unisex garment as an insult, and the settlement breaks down.
All leave the Althing and prepare themselves, amid portents and prophecies, for the showdown. One hundred men descend on Njal’s home, Bergthorsknoll, (Bergþórshvoll), to find it defended by about thirty. Any victory for Flosi will be at some cost. But Njal makes the foolish suggestion that his sons defend from within the house, and they, conscious that it is foolish, submit. Flosi and his men set fire to the building.
Both the innocent and the guilty are surrounded. Flosi allows the innocent to escape but Njal, Bergþóra, and their grandson Þórður, stay in the building to die with the guilty. Helgi is killed in an attempt to escape. Eventually ten people die – but they do not include Kári who has escaped under cover of the smoke. Flosi knows immediately that there is someone to exact vengeance for the Burning.
The Althing
At the Althing two troops gather. Legal action is taken against the Burners, and there is a legal joust between the parties. Þórhall, Njal’s foster-son, has absorbed his legal training, but he is hampered by physical reactions to the stress. But eventually when legal action seems to be failing he lances his boil with his spear and begins the fighting. Flosi’s men are driven back until Snorri leads an intervention to separate the parties. In the confusion several are killed including Ljótur, Flosi’s brother-in-law.
Ljótur’s father, Hallur of Síða, takes advantage of the truce to appeal for peace, and, in a move that marks a change from Viking to Christian thinking, seeks no compensation for his son. Moved by this, all but Kári and Njal’s nephew Þórgeir conclude a settlement, while everyone contributes to compensation for Ljótur. The Burners are exiled for three years.
Before the Sigfússons have reached home Kári attacks them, and most the rest of the saga describes his vengeance of the Burning. He is supported initially by Þórgeir and then by a comical braggart named Björn. He pursues them to Orkney and Wales. The most dramatic moment is when he breaks into the earl’s hall in Orkney and kills one who is giving a lying account of the events.
After a pilgrimage to Rome Flosi returns to Iceland. Kári follows, and is shipwrecked near Flosi’s home. Testing Flosi’s nobility he goes to him for help, and they arrange a final peace. Kári marries Höskuldur’s widow. Finally, there is a full reconciliation.
Trivia
There is at least one reference to Njal in the Monty Python oeuvre, in which it is comically pronounced nn-jarl (the J as in "jar").
See also
★ Norse saga
External links
★ Icelandic text with English & French translations at the Icelandic Saga Database
★ An online public domain edition of Njal's Saga: George Dasent's English translation
★ An online public domain edition of Njal's Saga—George Dasent's English translation
★ Modernized Icelandic text
★ The official Njal's Saga website—The Njála museum in Hvolsvöllur, Iceland
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