'Nigeria', officially named the 'Federal Republic of Nigeria', is a
country in
West Africa and the most populous country in
Africa. Nigeria shares land
borders with the Republic of
Benin in the west,
Chad and
Cameroon in the east, and
Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the
Gulf of Guinea, part of the Atlantic Ocean, in the south. Since 1991, its
capital has been the centrally-located city of
Abuja; previously, the
Nigerian government was headquartered in the coastal city,
Lagos.
[''CIA - The World Factbook-- Nigeria. Retrieved June 29, 2006.'']
The people of Nigeria have an extensive history, and archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BC.
[''McIntosh, Susan Keech, Current directions in west African prehistory. Palo Alto, Calif.: Annual Reviews Inc., 1981. 215-258 p.: ill.''] The
Benue-Cross River area is thought to be the original homeland of the
Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the
1st millennium BC and the
2nd millennium AD.
On
October 1,
1960, Nigeria gained its independence from the
United Kingdom, and now consists of 36
states and the federal capital territory. Nigeria re-achieved democracy in 1999 after a sixteen-year interruption; from 1966 until 1999, Nigeria had been ruled (except the short-lived
second republic, 1979-1983) by military dictators who seized power in
coups d'état and counter-coups during the
Nigerian military juntas of 1966-1979 and 1983-1998.
History
Main articles: History of Nigeria
The
Nok people in central Nigeria produced terracotta sculptures that have been discovered by archaeologists.
[''Shaw, Thurstan, Nigeria: Its Archaeology and early history. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007.''] In the northern part of the country,
Kano and
Katsina has recorded history which dates back to around AD 999.
Hausa kingdoms and the
Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa.
The
Yoruba kingdoms of
Ifẹ and
Oyo in the western block of the country were founded about 700-900 and 1400 respectively. Yoruba mythology believes that Ile-Ife is the source of the human race and that it predates any other civilization. Ifẹ produced the terra cotta and bronze heads, the Ọyọ extended as far as modern
Togo. Another prominent kingdom in south western Nigeria was the
Kingdom of Benin whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well known city of Lagos which is also called "Eko" by the indigenes.
Two slightly differing Okpoho
Manillas, an archaic form of Nigerian money.
Newly independent Nigeria's government was a coalition of conservative parties: the
Nigerian People's Congress (NPC), a party dominated by Northerners and those of the
Islamic faith, and the
Igbo and Christian dominated
National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) led by
Nnamdi Azikiwe, who became Nigeria's maiden
Governor-General in 1960. Forming the opposition was the comparatively liberal
Action Group (AG), which was largely dominated by
Yorubas and led by
Obafemi Awolowo.
[''Udofia , Nigerian Political Parties: Their Role in Modernizing the political System, 1920-1966, Journal of Black Studies, June 1981. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007, pp 437-447.'']
An imbalance was created in the polity by the result of the 1961 plebiscite. Southern Cameroon opted to join the Republic of Cameroon while northern Cameroon chose to remain in Nigeria. The northern part of the country was now far larger than the southern part. The nation parted with its British legacy in 1963 by declaring itself a
Federal Republic, with Azikiwe as the first
president. When elections came about in 1965, the AG was outmaneuvered for control of Nigeria's Western Region by the
Nigerian National Democratic Party, an amalgamation of conservative Yoruba elements backed heavily by the Federal Government amid dubious electoral circumstances. This left the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a weak progressive alliance.
Map of Nigeria
This disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led in 1966 to several back-to-back
military coups. The first was in January and led by a collection of young leftists under Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna & Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu, it was partially successful - the coupists overthrew the embattled government but could not install their choice, jailed opposition leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo,
[2] General Johnson Aguiyi-ironsi, then head of the army was invited by the rump of the Balewa regime to take over the affairs of the country as head of state. This coup was counter-acted by another successful plot, supported primarily by Northern military officers and Northerners who favored the NPC, it was engineered by Northern officers, which allowed Lt Colonel
Yakubu Gowon to become head of state. This sequence of events led to an increase in ethnic tension and violence. The Northern coup, which was mostly motivated by ethnic and religious reasons was a bloodbath of both military officers and civilians, especially those of Igbo extraction.
The violence against Igbos increased their desire for autonomy and protection from the military's wrath. By May 1967, the Eastern Region had declared itself an independent state called the
Republic of Biafra under the leadership Lt Colonel
Emeka Ojukwu in line with the wishes of the people. The Nigerian side attacked Biafra on July 6, 1967 at Garkem signaling the beginning of the 30 month war that ended on January 1970.
[''"Background Paper on Nigeria and Biafra, Declassified Documents reference System''] Following the war, Nigeria became to an extent even more mired in ethnic strife, as the defeated southeast was now conquered territory for the federal military regime, which changed heads of state twice as army officers staged a bloodless coup against Gowon and enthroned Murtala Mohammed; Olusegun Obansanjo succeeded the former after an
assassination.
During the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria joined OPEC and billions of dollars generated by production in the oil-rich
Niger Delta flowed into the coffers of the Nigerian state. However, increasing
corruption and graft at all levels of government squandered most of these earnings. As oil revenues fueled the rise of federal subventions to states and precariously to individuals, the Federal Government soon became the center of political struggle and the center became the threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government created a dangerous situation as it became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and the international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns eschewing economic stability.
[''Watts Michael, State, Oil and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley, 1987. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007.'']
Beginning in 1979, Nigerians participated in a brief return to democracy when Obasanjo transferred power to the civilian regime of
Shehu Shagari. The Shagari government was viewed as
corrupt and incompetent by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society, so when the regime was overthrown by the military coup of
Mohammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's fraudulent re-election in 1984, it was generally viewed as a positive development by most of the population.
[''Nigeria, Military Faces Daunting Challenges, AP Press International, March 3, 1984. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007.''] Buhari promised major reforms but his government fared little better than its predecessor, and his regime was overthrown by yet another military coup in 1985.
[''Nigeria stays calms as leader toppled in bloodless coup, The Globe and Mail, August, 28 1985. Retrieved Feb 22, 2007.'']
The new head of state,
Ibrahim Babangida, promptly declared himself
President and Commander in chief of the Armed Forces and the ruling
Supreme Military Council and also set 1990 as the official deadline for a return to democratic governance. Babangida's tenure was marked by a flurry of political activity: he instituted the
International Monetary Fund's Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) to aid in the repayment of the country's crushing international debt, which most federal revenue was dedicated to servicing. He also inflamed religious tensions in the nation and particularly the south by enrolling Nigeria in the
Organization of the Islamic Conference,
[''Michael Holman, Nigeria, Politics; Religious Differences Intensify, Financial Times, February 24, 1986. '']
After Babangida survived an abortive coup, he pushed back the promised return to democracy to 1992. When free and fair elections were finally held on the 12th of June, 1993, Babangida declared that the results showing a presidential victory for
Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola null and void, sparking mass civilian violence in protest which effectively shut down the country for weeks and forced Babangida to keep his shaky promise to relinquish office to a civilian run government.
[''Bilski Andrew, "Broken Promises" Maclean, September 6, 1993. ''] Babangida's regime is adjudged to be at the apogee of corruption in the history of the nation as it was during his time that corruption became officially diluted in Nigeria.
[''Diamond, larry, Kirk-Greene Anthoiny, Oyeleye Oyediran, Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida.'']
Babangida's caretaker regime headed by
Ernest Shonekan survived only until late 1993 when General
Sani Abacha took power in another military coup. Abacha proved to be perhaps Nigeria's most brutal ruler and employed violence on a wide scale to suppress the continuing pandemic of civilian unrest. Abacha was not only brutal but very corrupt.
[''"Nigeria: Who's who is Military Plots", Africa Confidential July 2001, Vol 42, No 15.''] While Babaginda encouraged his friends, family and himself to steal money, Abacha made corruption a family affair. Money had been found in various western European countries banks traced to him. He avoided coup plots by bribing army generals. Several hundred millions dollars in accounts traced to him were unearthed in 1999.
[''"Nigerian Lawyer: Abacha accounts apparently in Switzerland, Luxembourg, France, and Germany", AP press, January 10, 2000.'']
The regime would come to an end in 1998 when the dictator was found dead amid dubious circumstances. Abacha's death yielded an opportunity for return to civilian rule and Nigeria elected Olusegun Obasanjo, a
Yoruba and former military head of state, as the new
President. Although the elections which brought Obasanjo to power in 1999 and again in 2003 were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria has shown marked improvements in attempts to tackle government corruption and to hasten development. While Obasanjo showed willingness to fight corruption, he was accused by others of the same.
Umaru Yar'Adua, of the
People's Democratic Party, was elected President in the
general election of 2007. Ethnic violence over the oil producing
Niger Delta region (see
Conflict in the Niger Delta), interreligious relations and inadequate infrastructure are current issues in the country.
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of Nigeria
Nigeria is a
Federal Republic modeled after the
United States, with
executive power exercised by the
president and with overtones of the
Westminster System model in the composition and management of the upper and lower houses of the bicameral legislature.
The current president of Nigeria is
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua who was elected in 2007. The president presides as both
Chief of State and
Head of Government and is elected by
popular vote to a maximum of two four-year terms. The president's power is checked by a
Senate and a
House of Representatives, which are combined in a
bicameral body called the
National Assembly. The Senate is a 109-seat body with three members from each state and one from the capital region of Abuja; members are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. The House contains 360 seats and the number of seats per state is determined by population.
Ethnocentricism,
tribalism,
sectarianism (especially religious), and
prebendalism have played a visible role in Nigerian politics both prior and subsequent to independence in 1960. Kin-selective altruism has made its way into Nigerian politics and has spurned various attempts by tribalists to concentrate Federal power to a particular region of their interests.
[3] Tribalism and Nationalism has also led to active secessionist movements such as
MASSOB, Nationalist movements such as
Oodua Peoples Congress and a
civil war. Nigeria's three largest ethnic groups have maintained historical preeminence in Nigerian
politics; competition amongst these three groups, the
Hausa,
Yoruba, and
Igbo, has fueled corruption and graft.
[4]
Due to the above issues, Nigeria's current political parties are declaredly pan-national and irreligious in character (though this does not preclude the continuing preeminence of the dominant ethnicities).
[5] The major political parties at present include the ruling
People's Democratic Party of Nigeria which maintains 223 seats in the House and 76 in the Senate (61.9% and 69.7% respectively) and is led by the current President
Umaru Musa Yar'Adua; the opposition
All Nigeria People's Party under the leadership of
Muhammadu Buhari has 96 House seats and 27 in the Senate (26.6% and 24.7%). There are also about twenty other minor opposition parties registered. The outgoing president, Olusegun Obasanjo, acknowledged fraud and other electoral "lapses" but said the result reflected opinion polls. In a national television address he added that if Nigerians did not like the victory of his handpicked successor they would have an opportunity to vote again in four years.
[1]
Like in many other African societies, Prebendalism and extremely excessive corruption continue to constitute major challenges to Nigeria, as vote rigging and other means of coercion are practiced by all major parties in order to remain competitive. In 1983, it was adjudged by the policy institute at Kuru that only the 1959 and 1979 elections witnessed minimal rigging.
[''Jibrin Ibrahim, Legislation and the Electoral Process: The Third Term Agenda and the Future of Nigerian Democracy. Paper for Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) Nigeria Roundtable, 2006.'']
Law
There are four distinct systems of law in Nigeria:
★
English Law which is derived from its
colonial past with Britain;
★
common law, a development of its post colonial independence;
★
customary law which is derived from indigenous traditional norms and practices;
★
Sharia law, used only in the predominantly Muslim north of the country. An Islamic legal system was first implemented in
Zamfara in late 1999 and eleven other states followed suit. These states are
Kano,
Katsina,
Niger,
Bauchi,
Borno,
Kaduna,
Gombe,
Sokoto,
Jigawa,
Yobe, and
Kebbi.
[6]
The country has a
judicial branch, the highest court of which is the
Supreme Court of Nigeria.
States and local government areas
Main articles: States of Nigeria,
Local Government Areas of Nigeria
Nigeria is divided into thirty-six
states and one
Federal Capital Territory, which are further sub-divided into 774
Local Government Areas (LGAs). The plethora of states, of which there were only three at independence, reflect the country's tumultuous history and the difficulties of managing such a heterogeneous national entity at all levels of government.
Nigeria has six cities with a population of over 1 million people (from largest to smallest:
Lagos,
Kano,
Ibadan,
Kaduna,
Port Harcourt, and
Benin City). Lagos is the
largest city in sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of over
10 million in its urban area alone.
Foreign relations and military
Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Nigeria
Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made the liberation and restoration of the dignity of Africa the centerpiece of its foreign policy and played a leading role in the fight against the apartheid regime in
South Africa;
[''"Collins Edomaruse, HOW OBASANJO CUT UK, US TO SIZE", BY ANDREW YOUNG, This Day (Nigeria) - , July 20, 2006.''] Nigeria's foreign policy was soon tested in the 1970s after the country emerged united from its own civil war and quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Though Nigeria never sent an expeditionary force in that struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the
African National Congress (ANC) by taking a committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa, in addition to expediting large sums to aid anti-colonial struggles. Nigeria was also a founding member of the
Organization for African Unity (now the
African Union), and has tremendous influence in
West Africa and Africa on the whole. Nigeria has additionally founded regional cooperative efforts in West Africa, functioning as standard-bearer for
ECOWAS and
ECOMOG, economic and military organizations respectively.
With this African-centred stance, Nigeria readily sent troops to the
Congo at the behest of the
United Nations shortly after independence (and has maintained membership since that time); Nigeria also supported several Pan African and pro-self government causes in the 1970s, including garnering support for
Angola's MPLA,
SWAPO in
Namibia, and aiding anti-colonial struggles in
Mozambique, and
Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) military and economically.
Nigeria retains membership in the
Non-Aligned Movement, and in late November 2006 organized an Africa-South America Summit in Abuja to promote what some attendees termed "South-South" linkages on a variety of fronts.
[7] Nigeria is also a member of the
International Criminal Court, and the
Commonwealth of Nations, from which it was temporarily expelled in 1995 under the
Abacha regime.
Nigeria has remained a key player in the
international oil industry since the 1970s, and maintains membership in
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC which it joined in July, 1971. Its
status as a major petroleum producer figures prominently in its sometimes vicissitudinous international relations with both
developed countries, notably the
United States and more recently
China and developing countries, notably Ghana, Jamaica and Kenya.
[''Shaw Timothy, The State of Nigeria: Oil Prices Power Bases and Foreign Policy, Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol 18, no 2, 1984.'']
Millions of Nigerians have emigrated at times of economic hardship to Europe, North America and Australia among others. It is estimated that over a million
Nigerians have emigrated to the United States and constitute the
Nigerian American populace. Of such Diasporic communities include the "
Egbe Omo Yoruba" society.
[8]
Military of Nigeria
Main articles: Military of Nigeria
Nigerian troops
The military in Nigeria have played a major role in the country's history since independence. Various juntas have seized control of the country and ruled it through most of its history. Its last period of rule ended in 1999 following the sudden death of dictator
Sani Abacha in 1998.
Taking advantage of its role of sub-Saharan Africa's most populated country, Nigeria has repositioned its military as an African peacekeeping force. Since 1995, the Nigerian military through
ECOMOG mandates have been deployed as peacekeepers in
Liberia (1997),
Ivory Coast (1997-1999),
Sierra Leone 1997-1999,
[''Ed O'Loughlin, Nigerians outshine the British brass, The Independent (London), March 11, 1998.''] and presently in
Sudan's
Darfur region under an African Union mandate.
Active duty personnel in the three Nigerian armed services total approximately 115,000. The
Nigerian Army, the largest of the services, has about 99,000 personnel deployed in two mechanized infantry divisions, one armoured division, one composite division (airborne and amphibious), the
Lagos Garrison Command (a division size unit), the Abuja-based Brigade of Guards and other regimental size units (e.g. artillery brigade). It has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain battalions in support of peacekeeping operations in
Liberia,
former Yugoslavia,
Angola,
Rwanda,
Somalia, and
Sierra Leone. The
Nigerian Navy (7,000 members) is equipped with
frigates, fast attack craft, corvettes, and coastal patrol boats. The
Nigerian Air Force (9,000 members) flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, many of which are currently non-operational, but there is an ongoing policy of reorganization, and the provision of a very professional armed forces with high capability. Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic training and military production capabilities.
Nigeria has continued a strict policy of diversification in military procurement from various countries. After the imposition of sanctions by many Western nations, Nigeria turned to the
People's Republic of China,
Russia,
North Korea, and
India for the purchase of military equipment and training.
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Nigeria
Nigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768
km² (356,669
mi²),
[9] making it the world's 32nd-largest country (after
Tanzania). It is comparable in size to
Venezuela, and is about twice the size of
California. It shares a 4047 km (2515-
mile) border with Benin (773 km), Niger (1497 km), Chad (87 km), Cameroon (1690 km), and has a coastline of at least 853 km.
[10].
The highest point in Nigeria is
Chappal Waddi at 2,419 m (7,936
feet).
Nigeria has a varied landscape. From the
Obudu Hills in the southeast through the beaches in the south, the
rainforest, the
Lagos estuary and
savanna in the middle and southwest of the country and the
Sahel and the encroaching
Sahara in the extreme north.
Nigeria's main rivers are the
Niger and the
Benue which converge and empty into the
Niger Delta, the world's largest river deltas.
Nigeria is also an important center for
biodiversity. It is widely believed that the areas surrounding
Calabar, Cross River State, contain the world's largest diversity of
butterflies. The
drill monkey is only found in the wild in Southeast Nigeria and neighboring
Cameroon.
Environment
Environmental degradation
Nigeria's Delta region, home of the large
oil industry, experiences serious
oil spills and other environmental problems. See
Environmental issues in the Niger Delta for more details, and
Conflict in the Niger Delta about strife which has arisen in connection with those issues.
Waste management including
sewage treatment, the linked processes of
deforestation and
soil degradation, and
climate change or global warming are the major environmental problems in Nigeria.
Waste management presents problems in a
mega city like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanization, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste
pollution in major Nigerian cities. Some of the 'solutions' have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and groundwater.
[11]
In terms of
global warming, Africans contribute only about one metric ton of carbon dioxide per person per year. It is perceived by many climate change experts that food production and security in the northern
sahel region of the country will suffer as semi-arid ares will have further more dry periods in the future.
[12]
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Nigeria
Main articles: Transport in Nigeria
The currency unit of Nigeria is the
Nigerian Naira.
Years of
military rule, corruption, and mismanagement have hampered economic activity and output in Nigeria and continue to do so, despite the restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reform. According to the
Economist Intelligence Unit and the
World Bank, Nigerian
GDP at
purchasing power parity was only at $170.7 billion as of FY 2005. The GDP per head is at $692.
[2]
Petroleum plays a large role in the Nigerian economy, accounting for 40% of the GDP. It is the 12th largest producer of petroleum in the world and the 8th largest exporter, and has the 10th largest proven reserves and the country was also a founding member of
OPEC. However, due to crumbling infrastructure, corruption, and ongoing civil strife in the
Niger Delta- its main oil producing region- oil production and export is not at 100% capacity.
Mineral resources that are present in Nigeria but not yet fully exploited are
coal and
tin. Other natural resources in the country include iron ore, limestone, niobium, lead, zinc, and arable land.
[''http://www.msmd.gov.ng/publications/publications.asp .''] Despite huge deposits of these natural resources, the mining industry in Nigeria is almost non-existent. About 60% of Nigerians are employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture used to be the principal foreign exchange earner of Nigeria. Perhaps, one of the most daunting ramifications of the discovery of oil was the decline of agricultural sector. So tragic was this neglect that Nigeria, which in the 1960s grew 98% of his own food and was a net food exporter, now must import much of the same cash crops it was formerly famous for as the biggest exporter. Agricultural products include
groundnuts,
palm oil,
cocoa,
coconut,
citrus fruits,
maize,
pearl millet,
cassava,
yams and
sugar cane. It also has a booming leather and textile industry, with industries located in Kano, Abeokuta, Onitsha, and Lagos.
Like many
Third World nations, Nigeria has accumulated a significant foreign debt. Many of the projects financed by these debts were inefficient, bedevilled by corruption or failed to live up to expectations. Nigeria defaulted on its debt as arrears and penalty interest accumulated and increased the size of the debt. However, after a long campaign by the Nigeria authorities, in October 2005 Nigeria and its
Paris Club creditors reached an agreement that will see Nigeria's debt reduced by approximately 60%. Nigeria will use part of its oil windfall to pay the residual 40%. This deal will free up at least $1.15 billion annually for poverty reduction programmes. As of April 2006, Nigeria became the first African Country to fully pay off her debt (estimated $30billion) owed to the
Paris Club.
Nigeria also has significant production and manufacturing facilities such as factories for
Peugeot the French car marker,
Bedford the English truck manufacturer, now a subsidiary of
General Motors, and also manufactures
t-shirts and
processed food.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Nigeria
Population density in Nigeria
Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa but exactly how populous is a subject of speculation. The
United Nations estimates that the population in 2004 was at 131,530,000
[3], with the population distributed as 48.3% Urban and 51.7% rural and population density at 139 people per square km. National census results in the past few decades have been disputed. The results of the most recent census by the Government of Nigeria have been released
29 December 2006. The census gave a population of 140.003.542. The only breakdown available was
Total: 140.003.542
Men: 71.709.859
Women: 68.293.083
According to the United Nations, Nigeria has been undergoing explosive population growth and one of the highest growth and fertility rates in the world. By their projections, Nigeria will be one of the countries in the world that will account for most of the world's total population increase by 2050.
[4] According to current data, one out of every four Africans are Nigerian.
[5] Presently,
Nigeria is the ninth most populous country in the world, and even conservative estimates conclude that more than 20% of the world's black population lives in Nigeria. 2006 estimates claim 42.3% of the population is between 0-14 years of age, while 54.6% is between 15-65; the
birth rate is significantly higher than the
death rate, at 40.4 and 16.9 per 1000 people respectively.
['' United States Library of Congress - Federal Research Division. Country Profile-Nigeria (2006).'']
Health,
health care, and general living conditions in Nigeria are poor.
Life expectancy is 47 years (average male/female) and just over half the population has access to potable water and appropriate
sanitation; the percentage is of children under five has gone up rather than down between 1990 and 2003 and infant mortality is 97.1 deaths per 1000
live births.
[ HIV/AIDS rate in Nigeria is much lower compared to the other African nations such as Kenya or South Africa whose prevalence (percentage) rates are in the double digits. Nigeria, like many developing countries, also suffers from a polio crisis as well as periodic outbreaks of cholera, malaria, and sleeping sickness. As of 2004, there has been a vaccination drive, spearheaded by the W.H.O., to combat polio and malaria that has been met with controversy in some regions.[13]]
Education is also in a state of neglect, though after the oil boom on the oil price in the early 1970s, tertiary education was improved so it would reach every subregion of Nigeria. Education is provided free by the government, but the attendance rate for secondary education is only 29% (average male 32%/female 27%). The education system has been described as "dysfunctional" largely due to decaying institutional infrastructure. 68% of the population is literate, and the rate for men (75.7%) is higher than that for women (60.6%).
Ethno-linguistic groups
Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups, with varying languages and customs, creating a country of rich ethnic diversity. The largest ethnic groups are the Fulani/Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, accounting for 68% of population, while the Edo, Ijaw (10%), Kanuri, Ibibio, Nupe and Tiv comprise 27%; other minorities make up the remaining 7 percent.['' Geographica: The complete Atlas of the world, "Nigeria", (Random House, 2002).''] The middle belt of Nigeria is known for its diversity of ethnic groups, including the Pyem, Goemai, and Kofyar.
There are small minorities of English, Americans, East Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Syrian, Lebanese and refugees and immigrants from other West African or East African nations. These minorities mostly reside in major cities such as Lagos and Abuja, or in the Niger Delta as employees for the major oil companies. A number of Cubans settled Nigeria as political refugees following the Cuban Revolution. A number of them include Afro-Cubans and mixed-raced Cubans.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, a number of ex-slaves of Afro-Cuban and Afro-Brazilian descent[14] and emigrants from Sierra Leone established communities in Lagos, Ibadan and other regions of Nigeria. Many ex-slaves came to Nigeria following the emancipation of slaves in Latin America. Many of the immigrants, sometimes called Saros (immigrants from Sierra Leone) and Amaro (ex-slaves from Brazil)[15] later became prominent merchants and missionaries in Lagos and Abeokuta.
Language
Main articles: Languages of Nigeria
The number of languages currently estimated and catalogued in Nigeria is 521. This number includes 510 living languages, two second languages without native speakers and 9 extinct languages. In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria, English, was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country. The choice of English as the official language was partially related to the fact that a part of Nigerian population spoke English as a result of British colonization that ended in 1960.
The major languages spoken in Nigeria represent three major families of African languages - the majority are Niger-Congo languages, such as Yoruba, Igbo, the Hausa language is Afro-Asiatic; and Kanuri, spoken in the northeast, primarily Borno State, is a member of the Nilo-Saharan family. Even though most ethnic groups prefer to communicate in their own languages, English, being the official language, is widely used for education, business transactions and for official purposes. English as a first language, however, remains an exclusive preserve of a small minority of the country's urban elite, and is not spoken at all in some rural areas. With the majority of Nigeria's populace in the rural areas, the major languages of communication in the country remain indigenous languages. Some of the largest of these, notably Yoruba and Igbo, have derived standardized languages from a number of different dialects and are widely spoken by those ethnic groups. Hausa is a ''lingua franca'' throughout much of West Africa, and serves this function in Northern Nigeria as well, particularly amongst the Muslim population. Nigerian Pidgin English, often known simply as 'Pidgin' or 'Brokan' (Broken English), is also as a popular lingua franca, though with varying regional influences on dialect and slang.The pidgin English or Nigerian English is widely spoken within the Niger Delta Regions, predominately in Warri,Sapele, Port-Harcourt, Agenebode, Benin City etc.
The Yoruba language has the most varied forms and dialects. This variation is usually based on the different towns or as it were Kingdoms that existed before the advent of Europeans. They are as diverse as the number of city states that there are. Examples are Awori, Ondo/Ekiti, Egba/Yewa, Oyo/Ibadan, Ijebu, Ijesa/Ife.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Nigeria
Literature
Nigeria has a rich literary history, and Nigerians have authored many influential works of post-colonial literature in the English language. Nigeria's best-known writers are Wole Soyinka, the first African Nobel Laureate in Literature and Chinua Achebe, the legendary writer best known for the novel, Things Fall Apart. Other Nigerian writers and poets who are well known on the international stage include John Pepper Clark, Ben Okri, Buchi Emecheta, Helon Habila, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Ken Saro Wiwa who was executed in 1995 by the military regime.
Nigeria has the second largest newspaper market in Africa (after Egypt) with an estimated circulation of several million copies daily in 2003[6], [7]
Media
Nigeria(naija) has been called "the heart of African music" because of its role in the development of West African highlife and palm-wine music, which fuses native rhythms with techniques imported from the Congo, Brazil, Cuba and elsewhere.
Nigerian music includes many kinds of folk and popular music, some of which are known worldwide. Styles of folk music are related to the multitudes of ethnic groups in the country, each with their own techniques, instruments and songs. As a result, there are many different types of music that come from Nigeria.
Many late 20th century musicians such as Fela Kuti have famously fused cultural elements of various indigenous music with American Jazz and Soul to form Afrobeat music.[''Adams, S. Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti: New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, New York; This Is Lagos: Yabis Night, Music and Fela: Skoto Gallery, New York, New York [Exhibit]. African Arts v. 37 no. 1 (Spring 2004 Country ''] JuJu music which is percussion music fused with traditional music from the Yoruba nation and made famous by King Sunny Ade, is also from Nigeria. There is also fuji music, a Yoruba percussion style, created and popularized by the one and only Mr. Fuji, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister.
There is a budding hip hop movement in Nigeria. Kennis Music,the self proclaimed "No 1 Record Label in Africa" and one of Nigeria's biggest record labels, has a roster almost entirely dominated by hip hop artists.
World famous musicians that come from Nigeria are Fela Kuti, Osadebe, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister, King Sunny Ade, Ebenezer Obey, Femi Kuti, Lagbaja, Dr. Alban, Sade Adu Seal.
The Nigerian Film Industry also known as Nollywood is famous throughout Africa. Many of the film studios are based in Lagos and Abuja and the industry is now a very lucrative income for these cities.
Religion
Main articles: Religion in Nigeria
Nigeria has a variety of religions which tend to vary regionally. This situation accentuates regional and ethnic distinctions and has often been seen as a source of sectarian conflict amongst the population. [16] The three main religions are Islam (see also Islam in Nigeria), Christianity, and Animism. Animist religious practices include traditional religious belief systems such as Orishas and Igbo mythology. Christianity is concentrated in the southeast portion of the country while Islam dominates in the north of the country; some northern states have incorporated Sharia law into their previously secular legal systems, provoking controversy. [''Owobi Angrew, Tiptoeing Through A Constitutional Minefield: The Great Sharia Controversy in Nigeria, Journal Of African law, Vol 48, No 2, 2002.'']Kano state of Nigeria has sought to make Sharia law superior to the constitution.[17]
Other non-majority Religious and spiritual groups in Nigeria include Hinduism [18], Judaism, Chrislam (A blend of Christianity and Islam) [19], and Nigeria has become an African hub for Grail Movement[20], the Rosicrucian order (AMORC)[21], and Hari krishna[22].
Sport
Main articles: Football in Nigeria
Like many nations, football is Nigeria's national sport. There is also a local Premier League of football. Nigeria's national football team, known as the Super Eagles, has made the World Cup on three occasions 1994, 1998, and 2002, won the African Cup of Nations in 1980 and 1994, and also hosted the Junior World Cup. They won the gold medal for football in the 1996 Summer Olympics (in which they beat Argentina) and have reached the finals of the U-20 World Championship in 2005. According to the official November 2006 FIFA World Rankings, Nigeria is currently fifth-ranked football nation in Africa and the 36th highest in the world. Nigeria is also involved in other sports such as basketball[23] and track and field.
Cuisine
Nigerian cuisine, like West African cuisine in general, is known for its richness and variety. Many different spices, herbs and flavourings are used in conjunction with palm oil or groundnut oil to create deeply-flavoured sauces and soups often made very hot with chilli peppers. Nigerian feasts are colourful and lavish, while aromatic market and roadside snacks cooked on barbecues or fried in oil are plentiful and varied.[24]
An incomplete list of examples of Nigerian dishes:
★ Amala is a thick smooth paste or porridge made from yam flour.
★ Groundnut Stew is perhaps the jewel in the crown of Nigerian cooking, with groundnuts, tomato and onion as the base, it can be infinitely varied with chicken, beef or fish and different leaf vegetables for subtle flavours.
★ Draw soup is made from okra or melon seeds cooked until they 'thicken.'
★ Eba, also called garri is, like amala, a very thick paste, rolled into balls and made from cassava (manioc).
★ Egusi soup is thickened with ground melon seeds and contains leaf vegetables, other vegetables, seasonings, and meat.
★ Fried plantain or 'dodo' is a side dish of plantains fried in vegetable oil or palm oil.
★ Fufu is a thick and very smooth paste made from yams or cocoyam, but any starchy staple can be used such as potato, cassava, plantains, maize.
★ Iru is fermented locust beans used as a condiment in cooking and is typically added to egusi soup and ogbono soup.
★ Jollof rice consists of rice, tomatoes and tomato paste, onion, salt, and red pepper and a variety of vegetables and meats, and can constitute a complete banquet on a plate.
★ Kunu is a popular drink made of either millet, sorghum or maize.
★ Moimoi is a steamed bean pudding made from a mixture of washed and peeled black-eyed beans, onions and fresh black pepper wrapped in a moimoi leaf (like a banana leaf).
★ Ogbono soup is made with ground ogbono seeds, with leaf vegetables, other vegetables, seasonings, and meat.
★ Groundnut Soup is made with grounded dry groundnuts and with vegetables, fish, meat local seasoning and palmoil. It is common amongst Etsakor people in Edo state.
★ Suya is a meat kebab coated with groundnuts (peanuts) and chilli pepper.
★ Sobo is a drink made of roselle juice.
★ Efo soup is a stew made from leafy vegetables and tastes nice when eaten with fish. It is common among the Yorubas.
★ Corn Soup also known locally as 'Omi Ukpoka' is made with grounded dry corn and blended with smoked fish. It is common with Afemai people mainly from Agenebode in Northern Edo state
★ Pate is made with grounded dry corn or rice or ACHA. Mostly combined with Vegetable (Spinach), tomatoes, onions, pepper, garden egg, locust beans, Ground nut, biscuit bone and meats minces. It is common within the North-Western Nigeria, likes of Kaduna, Nassarawa and Plateau.
★ Kosa is a beignet from a dough based on black-eyed beans
Societal issues
Despite its vast government revenue from the mining of petroleum, Nigeria is beset by a number of societal problems due primarily to a history of inept governance. Some of these problems are listed below.
Human rights
Main articles: Human rights in Nigeria
Homosexuality is illegal in Nigeria as it runs counter the country's deeply ingrained cultural and religious mores. Homosexual intercourse is punishable by imprisonment in the south and possibly death in the Muslim north.
On February 14, 2007 The National Assembly held public hearings on a bill to ban gay marriage and criminalize virtually all forms of gay expression. The bill reads as follows:
Any person who is involved in the registration of gay clubs, societies and organizations, sustenance, procession or meetings, publicity and public show of same sex amorous relationship directly or indirectly in public and in private is guilty of an offense and liable on conviction to a term of five years imprisonment.
In April 2007, the voluntary Sharia police of Nigeria known as the Hisbah issued arrest warrants against an alleged lesbian who married four women in a large celebration in Kano, Nigeria.[25]
Strife and sectarian violence
Due to its multitude of diverse, sometimes competing ethno-linguistic groups, Nigeria has been beset since prior to independence with sectarian tensions and violence. This is particularly true in the oil-producing Niger Delta region, where both state and civilian forces employ varying methods of coercion in attempts gain control over regional petroleum resources. The civilian population, and especially certain ethnic groups like the Ogoni, have experienced severe environmental degradation due to petroleum extraction, but when these groups have attempted to protest these injustices, they have been met with repressive measures by Nigerian government and military forces. As a result, strife and deterioration in this region continues as of 2006.
There are also significant tensions on a national scale, especially between the primarily Muslim, highly conservative northern population and the Christian population from the Southern part of the country.
Since the end of the civil war in 1970, ethnic and religious violence has continued. Violence between Muslims and Christians occurred until early 2004. There has subsequently been a period of relative harmony since the Federal Government introduced tough new measures against religious violence in all affected parts of the country.
In 2002, organizers of the Miss World Pageant announced that they would move the pageant from the Nigerian capital, Abuja, to London in the wake of violent protests in the Northern part of the country that left more than 100 people dead and over 500 injured. The rioting erupted after a newspaper suggested Muhammad would have approved of the Miss World beauty contest for personal reasons. Muslim rioters in Kaduna killed an estimated 105 men, women, and children with a further 521 injured taken to hospital. Angry mobs in the mainly Muslim city 600 kilometres (375 miles) northwest of Lagos burnt churches and rampaged through the streets, stabbing, bludgeoning, and burning bystanders to death.[''James Astill, The truth behind the Miss World riots: The unrest in Nigeria was more about old grudges than a beauty contest - and it has left deep wounds, The Guardian (London), November 30, 2002'']
Health issues
Nigeria has been reorganizing its health system since the Bamako Initiative of 1987 formally promoted a community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health care services to the population, in part by implementing user fees.[26] The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services.
A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.[27]
The state of health care in Nigeria has been worsened by a shortage of doctors as a consequence of severe 'brain drain'. Many Nigerian doctors have emigrated to North America and Europe. In 1995, 21,000 Nigeria doctors were practising in the US alone, about the same as the number of doctors then in the Nigerian public service. Retaining these expensively-trained professionals has been identified as an urgent goal.[28]
National well-being
In 2003, Nigerians were reported to be the happiest people in a scientific survey carried out in 65 nations in 1999-2000.[29] The research was reported by one of the world's top science magazines, ''New Scientist'', and was picked up by a number of news outlets. See ''Nigeria tops happiness survey''. The report considered that the country's family life and culture were more important than its problems and material wealth in determining happiness.
Advance fee fraud (419 e-mail scams)
Main articles: Advance fee fraud
Large numbers of advance fee fraud e-mails, known as '419 e-mails' in reference to the article of the Nigerian Criminal Code dealing with fraud, are sent every day by individuals in Nigeria to e-mail addresses around the world.
References
1. "Nigeria: Census 2006 Puts Nigerians At 140 Million", ''allAfrica.com'', 30 December 2006
2. SUNDAY ORISAKWE, "1966 Coup Plotters Planned To Hand Over Power To Awo, Says Ofeimun." The Nigerian Gurdian, May 5, 2007.
3. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, who served briefly as Nigeria's second president, devoted his government to combatting this phenomenon with Decree 33, which banned 81 political parties and 26 tribal and cultural organizations in the name of national unity. See Osaghae, ''The Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p. 57. ISBN 0253211972.
4. See, for instance, Rashid, Khadijat K. "Ethnicity and Sub-Nationalism in Nigeria: Movement for a Mid-West State/Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria/Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria," in ''African Studies Review'', September, 2003.
5. Ibid. See also, Lancia, Nicole. "Ethnic Politics in Nigeria: The Realities of Regionalism" in Capitol Scholar.
6. Sharia Law in the Northern States of Nigeria: To Implement or Not to Implement, the Constitutionality is the Question
7. See, e.g., the African Union website, at http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/Past/2006/November/SummitASA/summit.htm
8. "Egbe Omo Yoruba, National Association Of Yoruba descendants in North America", ''yorubanation.org'', 19 May 2007.
9. Rank Order - Area
10. CIA World Factbook. Note that coastlines, and borders based on rivers or natural features, are fractals, the length of which is imprecise and depends on the measurement convention adopted.
11. D. N. Ogbonna, I. K. E. Ekweozor, F. U. Igwe (2002). "Waste Management: A Tool for Environmental Protection in Nigeria." ''A Journal of the Human Environment'', '31', (1) (February 2002).
12. Fields, Scott (2005). "Continental Divide: Why Africa’s Climate Change Burden Is Greater". ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' '113' (8), August 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
13. Nigerian state thwarts polio push
14. Toyin Falola; The History of Nigeria, Greenwood Press, 1999. pp 41,47
15. Abiola Dosumu Elegbede-Fernandez, Lagos A Legacy of Honour. Spectrum Books, 1992.pp 19,27
16. Osita Agbu; Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Nordic African Institute, 2004, pp 6.
17. "Kano Seeks Supremacy of Sharia Over Constitution", wwrn.org, Accessed May 19, 2007.
18. "Adherents by Location", Adherents.com, Accessed May 19, 2007.
19. "In African, Islam and Christianity are growing - and blending", csmonitor.com, Accessed May 19, 2007.
20. "Grail Movement - Nigeria", grailmovementnigeria.org, Accessed May 19, 2007.
21. "Region Three covers Nigeria", amorc.org.uk, Accessed May 19, 2007.
22. "Day Hare Krishna Came to Town", wwrn.org, Accessed May 19, 2007.
23. AFRICABASKET, "Nigerian Basketball", Africabasket.com, Accessed April 29, 2007.
24. H.O. Anthonio & M. Isoun: "Nigerian Cookbook". Macmillan, Lagos, 1982.
25.
Polygamous lesbians flee Sharia
26. User fees for health: a background
27. Effect of the Bamako-Initiative drug revolving fund on availability and rational use of essential drugs in primary health care facilities in south-east Nigeria
28. Mike Chinedu Anekwe: "Brain Drain: The Nigerian Experience." ''Niger Delta Congress'' website accessed 8 April 2007.
29. BBC: ''Nigeria tops happiness survey'', Thursday, 2 October, 2003. Website accessed 26 March 2007.
External links
; Government
★ Nigerian Government website
★ Nigerian consulate in New York
; 1999 Constitution
★ Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria - 1999
; Newspapers
★ Daily Independent
★ Daily Sun
★ Daily Triumph
★ Daily Trust
★ Punch
★ The Guardian
★ The Vanguard
★ This Day
; Overviews
★ BBC Nigeria Profile - ''Nigeria''
★ US Library of Congress Country Study
★
See also
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