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The 'Mozarabs' (in Spanish: ''mozárabes''; in ; from ) were Iberian Christians who lived under Muslim rule in Al-Andalus. Their descendants remained unconverted to Islam, but did however adopt elements of Arabic language and culture.

Contents

Status

Restrictions

Language

Religion

See also

References

Status

As Christians were regarded by the Muslims as dhimmi or tolerated non-Muslims living under the rule of a Muslim government, they and Jews were allowed among Muslims if they paid the jizyah, a personal tax.
As the universal nature of Roman law was eroded, most ethnic groups in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages expected to be judged by their own judges, under their own law: Mozarabs had their own tribunals and authorities. Some of them held high offices in Muslim courts. Conversion to Islam was encouraged by the Ummayad caliphs and emirs of Córdoba. Apostasy, however, for one who had been raised as a Muslim or had embraced Islam, was a crime punishable by death.
Until the mid-ninth century, relations between Muslims and the Christian population of al-Andalus, still in the majority, were cordial. Christian resistance to the first wave of Muslim conquerors was unsuccessful. In Murcia, a single surviving capitulation document must stand for many such agreements to render tribute in exchange for the protection of a traditional liberties; in it, Theodomirus (''Todmir'' in Arabic), count of Orihuela agrees to recognize Abd al-Aziz as overlord and to pay tribute consisting of a yearly cash payment supplemented with specific agricultural products. In exchange, Theodomir received Abd al-Aziz' promise to respect both his property and his jurisdiction in the province of Murcia (Wolf). There was no change in the composition of the people on the land, and in cases like this one, even their Visigothic lords remained.

Restrictions

In the generations that followed the conquest, Muslim rulers promulgated new statutes clearly disadvantagous to dhimmi. The construction of new churches and the sounding of church bells were eventually forbidden. But when Eulogius recorded the martyrology of the Martyrs of Cordoba during the decade after 850, it was apparent that at least four Christian basilicas remained in the city, including the church of St. Acisclus that had sheltered the only holdouts in 711, and nine monasteries and convents in the city and its environs (Wolf); nevertheless, their existence soon became precarious.
Restrictions that forbade Christians to occupy any position in control of Muslims did encourage Christian slaves to gain their freedom by declaring conversion to islam; this had a dampening effect on Christian position in the social structure. Eulogius comments repeatedly on the burdensome tax that Christians bore.

Eulogius' writings documenting stories of the Cordoba martyrs of 851-59, encouraged by him to defy Muslim authorities with blasphemies and embrace martyrdom, contrast these Christians with the earlier official Christianity of Reccared, by Visigothic, the previous bishop of Cordoba, who counseled tolerance and mutual forbearance with the Muslim authorities. However, Christians became increasingly alienated not only because they could not build new churches or ring church bells, but primarily because they were excluded from most positions of political, military, or social authority and suffered many other indignities as unequals under the Islamic law. By the mid-ninth century, as the episode of the Córdoba martyrs reveals, there was a clear Christian opposition against the systematic pressure by a variety of legal and financial instruments of Islam, resisting their conversion and absorption into Muslim culture.
The initial official reaction to the Córdoba martyrs was to round up and imprison the leaders of the Christian community. Towards the end of the decade of the martyrs, Eulogius' martyrology begins to record the closing of Christian monasteries and convents, which to Muslim eyes had proved to be a hotbed of disruptive fanaticism rather than a legitimate response against a slow but systematic elimination of Christianity.
As previously with the Muslims, so as the ''Reconquista'' advanced, the Mozarabs integrated into the Christian kingdoms, where the kings privileged those who settled the frontier lands. They also migrated North in times of persecution.

Language

Main articles: Mozarabic language

During the early stages of Romance language development in Iberia, a set of closely-related Romance dialects was spoken in Muslim areas of the Peninsula by the general population. These are known as the 'Mozarabic language', though there never was a common standard.
This archaic Romance language is first documented in writing in the Peninsula in the form of choruses (''kharjas'') in Arabic and Hebrew lyrics called ''muwashshahs''. As they were written in Arabic alphabet (''aljamiado''), the vowels have had to be reconstructed.
Mozarab had a significant impact in the formation of Portuguese, Spanish and Valencian Catalan, transmitting to these many words of Andalusi Arabic origin. The northward migration of Mozarabs explains the presence of Arabic toponyms in places where the Muslim presence didn't last long.
The cultural language of Mozarabs continued to be Latin, but as time passed, young Mozarabs studied and even excelled at Arabic.

Religion

The Mozarabs remained apart from the influence of French monks and conserved in their masses the Visigothic rite, also known as the Mozarabic rite. The Christian kingdoms of the north, though, changed to the Latin rite (Castile in 1080) and appointed northerners as bishops for the reconquered sees. Nowadays, the Mozarabic rite is allowed by a papal privilege at the Mozarab Chapel of the Cathedral of Toledo, where it is held daily. Poor Clare Nuns church in Madrid, La Inmaculada y San Pascual, also holds weekly Mozarabic masses. A Mozarab brotherhood is still active in Toledo.
Conversion to Islam opened new social horizons to Mozarabs. Some Christian authorities (Alvaro of Cordoba and Eulogius) were scandalized at how the young ones preferred the Arabic culture and language and, in 851, tried to raise confrontation by publicly offending Islam. They expected that, by becoming martyrs, they would draw attention to the conflict. There were executions of Christians until 11 March 859. The Islamic authorities, however, often chose to consider them as madmen, thus deflecting tensions.
The Mozarab Missal of Silos is the oldest Western manuscript on paper, written in the eleventh century.

See also

★ Afariqa (Christian Berbers in North Africa)

References

★ Kenneth Baxter Wolf, ''Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain'', ch 1 "Christians in Muslim Córdoba"

★ Thomas E. Burman, "Religious polemic and the intellectual history of the Mozarabs, c. 1050-1200", Leiden 1994

★ P Chalmeta, "The Mozarabs", in Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Leiden

★ Juan Gil (ed.), "Corpus scriptorum Muzarabicorum", Madrid 1973

★ Mikel de Epalza, "Mozarabs: an emblematic Christian minority in Islamic al-Andalus", in Jayyusi (ed.) The legacy of Muslim Spain (1994), 148-170.

★ Hanna Kassis, "Arabic-speaking Christians in al-Andalus in an age of turmoil (fifth/eleventh century until A.H. 478/A.D. 1085)", in Al-Qantarah, vol. 15/1994, 401-450.

★ H D Miller & Hanna Kassis, "The Mozarabs", in Menocal, Scheindlin & Sells (eds.) The literature of al-Andalus, Cambridge (2000), 418-434.

★ Leopoldo Peñarroja Torrejón, "Cristianos bajo el islam: los mozárabes hasta la reconquista de Valencia", Madrid, Credos, 1993

★ Rageh Omaar, ''An Islamic History of Europe''. video documentary , BBC Four [1]: August 2005.