'Mozambique', officially the 'Republic of Mozambique' ( or ''República de Moçambique'',
pron. ), is a country in southeastern
Africa bordered by the
Indian Ocean to the east,
Tanzania to the north,
Malawi and
Zambia to the northwest,
Zimbabwe to the west and
Swaziland and
South Africa to the southwest. It was explored by
Vasco da Gama in
1498 and colonized by
Portugal in
1505. By
1510, the
Portuguese had control of all of the former Arab sultanates on the east African coast. From about
1500,
Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east.
It is a member of the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the
Commonwealth of Nations. Mozambique (Moçambique) was named after ''Muça Alebique'', a sultan.
History
Main articles: History of Mozambique
Between the
first and
fourth centuries CE, waves of
Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through the
Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas. The Bantu were farmers and ironworkers.
The
Island of Mozambique is a small coral island at the mouth of Mossuril Bay on the
Nacala coast of northern Mozambique, first explored by Europeans in the late 1400s.
When
Portuguese explorers reached Mozambique in 1498,
Arab commercial and slave trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries. From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east. Later,
traders and
prospectors penetrated the interior regions seeking gold and
slaves. Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers and officials who were granted extensive autonomy. As a result, investment lagged while
Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with
India and the
Far East and to the colonization of
Brazil.
By the early
twentieth century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of Mozambique to large private companies, like the Mozambique Company, the Zambezi Company and the
Niassa Company, controlled and financed mostly by the
British, which established railroad lines to neighboring countries and supplied cheap – often forced –
African labor to the
mines and
plantations of the nearby British colonies and
South Africa. Because policies were designed to benefit Portuguese immigrants and the Portuguese homeland, little attention was paid to Mozambique's national integration, its economic
infrastructure, or the skills of its population.
Post-war period
Main articles: Mozambican War of Independence
After
World War II, while many European nations were granting independence to their colonies, Portugal maintained that Mozambique and other Portuguese possessions were overseas provinces of the mother country, and emigration to the colonies soared. Calls for Mozambican independence developed apace, and in 1962 several anti-colonial political groups formed the
Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which initiated an armed campaign against Portuguese colonial rule in September 1964. However, Portugal had occupied the country for more than four hundred years; not all Mozambicans desired independence, and fewer still sought change through armed revolution. Poverty was widespread, and the Portuguese maintained a policy of mandatory ("forced") labour up until the 1960s. FRELIMO initially established some "liberated" zones in Northern Mozambique, and the strength of the movement gradually grew over the ensuing decade.
As FRELIMO's political campaign gained coherence, its forces advanced militarily, controlling one-third of the area of Mozambique by 1969, mostly in the northern and central provinces.
[1]
By 1974 the Portuguese army knew that, especially in Mozambique, the colonial wars were unwinnable . . . .
[2]
After a socialist-inspired military coup in Portugal overthrew the
dictatorship in 1974, Portugal affirmed its intention to grant independence to its remaining colonies. Mozambique became independent on
June 25 1975.
The last thirty years of Mozambique's history have reflected political developments elsewhere in the 20th century. Following the
coup in Lisbon, Portuguese withdrew from Mozambique. In Mozambique, the military decision to withdraw occurred within the context of a decade of armed anti-colonial struggle, initially led by American-educated
Eduardo Mondlane, who was assassinated in 1969. When independence was achieved in 1975, FRELIMO rapidly established a one-party state allied to the
Soviet bloc and outlawed rival political activity. FRELIMO eliminated political pluralism, religious educational institutions, and the role of traditional authorities.
Conflict and civil war
Main articles: Mozambican Civil War
The new government, under president
Samora Machel, gave shelter and support to South African (
ANC) and Zimbabwean (
ZANU) liberation movements while the governments of first
Rhodesia and later South Africa (at that time still operating the
apartheid laws) fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called the
Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Hence,
civil war, sabotage from neighboring white-ruled states such as
Rhodesia and the
Apartheid regime of South Africa, and economic collapse characterized the first decade of Mozambican independence. Also marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals and Mozambicans of Portuguese heritage, a weak infrastructure, government nationalization of privately owned industries and economic mismanagement. During most of the civil war, the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. An estimated 1 million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighboring states, and several million more were internally displaced. On
October 19,
1986 Samora Machel was on his way back from an international meeting in
Zambia in the presidential
Tupolev Tu-134 aircraft when the plane crashed in the
Lebombo Mountains, near Mbuzini. There were nine survivors but President Machel and twenty-four others died, including ministers and officials of the Mozambique government. The
United Nations'
Soviet delegation issued a minority report contending that their expertise and experience had been undermined by the South Africans. Representatives of the USSR advanced the theory that the plane had been intentionally diverted by a false
navigational beacon signal, using a technology provided by military intelligence operatives of the South African government (at that time still operating the laws of
apartheid).
[3]
Machel's successor,
Joaquim Chissano, continued the reforms and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the
Rome General Peace Accords, brokered by the
Community of Sant'Egidio. Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the
United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique.
By mid-1995 the more than 1.7 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring
Malawi,
Zimbabwe,
Swaziland,
Zambia,
Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, a further estimated four million internally displaced persons returned to their areas of origin.
Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Mozambique
While allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant, Mozambique's foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic. The twin pillars of Mozambique's foreign policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners.
During the 1970s and the early 1980s, Mozambique's foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in
Rhodesia and South Africa as well as superpower competition and the Cold War. Mozambique's decision to enforce UN sanctions against Rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea led
Ian Smith's government to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country. Although the change of government in Zimbabwe in 1980 removed this threat, the government of South Africa (at that time still operating under the laws of
apartheid) continued to finance the destabilization of Mozambique. It also belonged to the
Front Line States.
The 1984
Nkomati Accord, while failing in its goal of ending South African support to RENAMO, opened initial diplomatic contacts between the Mozambican and South African governments. This process gained momentum with South Africa's elimination of
apartheid, which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in October 1993. While relations with neighboring Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania show occasional strains, Mozambique's ties to these countries remain strong.
In the years immediately following its independence, Mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some western countries, notably the
Scandinavians.
USSR and its allies, however, became Mozambique's primary economic, military, and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage. This began to change in 1983; in 1984 Mozambique joined the
World Bank and
International Monetary Fund. Western aid quickly replaced Soviet support, with the Scandinavians countries of Sweden (EU Member since 1996), Norway, Denmark (EU Member since 1973) and Iceland. Plus Finland (EU Member since 1996) and the Netherlands within the European Union are becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance. Italy also maintains a profile in Mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process. Relations with Portugal, the former colonial power, continue to play an important role as Portuguese investors play a visible role in Mozambique's economy.
Mozambique is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and ranks among the moderate members of the African Bloc in the United Nations and other international organizations. Mozambique also belongs to the
African Union (formerly the
Organization of African Unity) and the
Southern African Development Community. In 1994, the Government became a full member of the
Organization of the Islamic Conference, in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country's sizable muslim population. Similarly, in early 1996 Mozambique joined its
Anglophone neighbors in the
Commonwealth. It is the only nation to join the Commonwealth that was never part of the
British Empire. In the same year, Mozambique became a founding member and the first President of the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), and maintains close ties with other
Lusophone states.
Provinces and districts
Main articles: Provinces of Mozambique,
Districts of Mozambique
Mozambique is divided into ten
provinces (''provincias'') and one capital city (''cidade'') with provincial status. The
provinces are subdivided into 129
districts (''distritos''). Districts are further divided in "Postos Administrativos" (Administrative Posts) and these in Localidades (Localities) the lowest geographical level of central state administration. Since 1998, 33 "Municípios" (Municipalities) have been created in Mozambique.
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Mozambique
At 309,475
square miles (801,590
km²), Mozambique is the world's 36th-largest country (after
Pakistan). It is comparable in size to
Turkey.
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Mozambique
Mozambique is a multi-party
democracy under the 1990
constitution. The executive branch comprises a president,
prime minister, and Council of Ministers. There is a
National Assembly and municipal assemblies. The judiciary comprises a Supreme Court and provincial, district, and municipal courts.
Suffrage is universal at eighteen.
In the 1994
elections. Joaquim Chissano was elected President with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129
FRELIMO deputies, 112
RENAMO deputies, and nine representatives of three smaller parties that formed the
Democratic Union (UD). Since its formation in 1994, the National Assembly has made progress in becoming a body increasingly more independent of the executive. By 1999, more than one-half (53%) of the legislation passed originated in the Assembly.
After some delays, in 1998 the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level. The principal opposition party, RENAMO, boycotted the local elections, citing flaws in the registration process. Independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies. Turnout was very low.
In the aftermath of the 1998 local elections, the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition's procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in 1999. Working through the National Assembly, the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in December 1998. Financed largely by international donors, a very successful voter registration was conducted from July to September 1999, providing voter registration cards to 85% of the potential electorate (more than seven million voters).
The second general elections were held December 3-5, 1999, with high
voter turnout. International and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organized and went smoothly. Both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that, had they not occurred, might have changed the outcome. In the end, however, international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people.
President Chissano won the presidency with a margin of 4% points over the RENAMO-Electoral Union coalition candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, and began his five-year term in January 2000. FRELIMO increased its majority in the National Assembly with 133 out of 250 seats. RENAMO-UE coalition won 116 seats, one went independent, and no third parties are represented.
The opposition coalition did not accept the National Election Commission's results of the presidential vote and filed a formal complaint to the Supreme Court. One month after the voting, the court dismissed the opposition's challenge and validated the election results. The opposition did not file a complaint about the results of the legislative vote.
The second local elections, involving thirty-three municipalities with some 2.4 million registered voters, took place in November 2003. This was the first time that FRELIMO, RENAMO-UE, and independent parties competed without significant boycotts. The 24% turnout was well above the 15% turnout in the first municipal elections. FRELIMO won twenty-eight mayoral positions and the majority in twenty-nine municipal assemblies, while RENAMO won five mayoral positions and the majority in four municipal assemblies. The voting was conducted in an orderly fashion without violent incidents. However, the period immediately after the elections was marked by objections about voter and candidate registration and vote tabulation, as well as calls for greater transparency.
Mozambique's president, Armando Guebuza.
In May 2004, the government approved a new general elections law that contained innovations based on the experience of the 2003 municipal elections.
Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on December 1-2, 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on February 2, 2005. RENAMO and some other opposition parties made claims of election fraud and denounced the result. These claims were supported by international observers (among others by the European Union Election Observation Mission to Mozambique and the Carter Center) to the elections who criticized the fact that the National Electoral Commission (CNE) did not conduct fair and transparent elections. They listed a whole range of shortcomings by the electoral authorities that benefited the ruling party FRELIMO. However, according to EU observers, the elections shortcomings have probably not affected the final result in the presidential election. On the other hand, the observers have declared that the outcome of the parliamentary election and thus the distribution of seats in the National Assembly does not reflect the will of the Mozambican people and is clearly to the disadvantage of RENAMO.
The
Reporters Without Borders' Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006 ranked Mozambique 45th out of 168 countries.
Economy
Women in Mozambique with maize.
The official currency is the
New Metical (as of 2006, 1 USD is roughly equivalent to 25 Meticals), which on
January 1 2007 replaced old Meticals in rate thousand to one. The old currency will be redeemed by the
Bank of Mozambique until the end of 2012.
US dollar,
South African rand and recently also
Euro are also widely accepted and used in business transactions. The minimum legal salary is around 60 dollars per month. Mozambique is member of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC). The SADC
free trade protocol is aimed at making the South African region more competitive by eliminating
tariffs and other
trade barriers.
Rebounding growth
The resettlement of
war refugees and successful economic reform have led to a high growth rate: the average growth rate from 1993 to 1999 was 6.7%; from 1997 to 1999 it averaged more than 10% per year. The devastating floods of early 2000 slowed GDP growth to 2.1%. A full recovery was achieved with growth of 14.8% in 2001. In 2003, the growth rate was 7%. The government projects the economy to continue to expand between 7%-10% a year for the next five years, although rapid expansion in the future hinges on several major foreign investment projects, continued economic reform, and the revival of the agriculture, transportation, and tourism sectors. More than 75% of the population engages in small scale agriculture, which still suffers from inadequate infrastructure, commercial networks, and investment. However, 88% of Mozambique's arable land is still
uncultivated.
Inflation
The government's tight control of spending and the money supply, combined with financial sector reform, successfully reduced
inflation from 70% in 1994 to less than 5% in 1998-99. Economic disruptions stemming from the devastating floods of 2000 caused inflation to jump to 12.7% that year, and it was 13% in 2003. The Mozambique's currency, the
Metical,
devaluated by 50% to the dollar in 2001, although in late 2001 it began to stabilize. Since then, it has held steady at about 24,000
MZN to 1 U.S. dollar. New Metical replaced old Meticals in rate thousand to one on
January 1 2007 bringing the exchange rate to 25 (new) MZN to 1 USD.
Economic reforms
More than 1,200
state-owned enterprises (mostly small) have been
privatized. Preparations for privatization and/or sector liberalization are underway for the remaining parastatal enterprises, including telecommunications, energy, ports, and the railroads. The government frequently selects a strategic foreign investor when privatizing a parastatal. Additionally, customs duties have been reduced, and customs management has been streamlined and reformed. The government introduced a value-added tax in 1999 as part of its efforts to increase domestic revenues. Plans for 2003-04 include Commercial Code reform; comprehensive judicial reform; financial sector strengthening; continued civil service reform; and improved government budget, audit, and inspection capability.
Improving trade imbalance
An old 1000 meticais note, prior to redenomination on 1 July 2006
Imports remain almost 40% greater than exports, but this is a significant improvement over the 4:1 ratio of the immediate post-war years. In 2003, imports were $1.24 billion and exports were $910 million. Support programs provided by foreign donors and private financing of foreign direct investment mega-projects and their associated raw materials, have largely compensated for balance-of-payments shortfalls. The medium-term outlook for exports is encouraging, since a number of foreign investment projects should lead to substantial export growth and a better trade balance. MOZAL, a large aluminum smelter that commenced production in mid-2000, has greatly expanded the nation's trade volume. Traditional Mozambican exports include cashews, shrimp, fish, copra, sugar, cotton, tea, and citrus fruits. Most of these industries are being rehabilitated. As well, Mozambique is less dependent on imports for basic food and manufactured goods because of steady increases in local production.
Demographics
Traditional fishing boat in Mozambique.
The north-central provinces of Zambezia and Nampula are the most populous, with about 45% of the population. The estimated four million
Makua are the dominant group in the northern part of the country; the
Sena and
Shona (mostly
Ndau) are prominent in the Zambezi valley, and the
Shangaan (Tsonga) dominate in southern Mozambique. Other groups include
Makonde,
Yao,
Swahili,
Tonga,
Chopi, and
Nguni (including
Zulu).
Bantu people comprise 99.66% of the population, the remaining 0.34% include
Europeans 0.06% (largely of
Portuguese ancestry), Euro-Africans 0.2% (
''mestiço'' people of mixed Bantu and Portuguese heritage), and
Indians 0.08%.
[4] During Portuguese colonial rule, a large minority of people of Portuguese descent lived permanently in almost all areas of the country, and Mozambicans with Portuguese blood at the time of independence numbered about 250,000. Most of these left the region after its freedom in
1975. The remaining minorities in Mozambique claim heritage from
Pakistan,
Portuguese India and
Arab countries. There are also some 7,000
Chinese.
Despite the influence of Islamic coastal traders and European colonizers, the people of Mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on small-scale agriculture. Mozambique's most highly developed art forms have been wood sculpture, for which the
Makonde in northern Mozambique are particularly renowned, and dance. The middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the Portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage.
Portuguese is the official and most widely spoken language of the nation, because Bantus speak several of their different languages (most widely used of these are
Swahili,
Makhuwa,
Sena,
Ndau, and
Shangaan — these have many Portuguese-origin words), but 40% of all people speak it — 33.5%, mostly Bantus, as their second language and only 6.5%, mostly white Portuguese and mestiços, speak it as their first language. Arabs, Chinese, and Indians speak their own languages (Indians from Portuguese India speak any of the
Portuguese Creoles of their origin) aside from Portuguese as their second language. Most educated Mozambicans speak
English, which is used in schools and business as second or third language.
Education
Main articles: Education in Mozambique
Under Portuguese rule, educational opportunities for poor Mozambicans were limited; Most of the Bantu population was illiterate, and many could not speak Portuguese. In fact, most of today's political leaders were educated in missionary schools. After independence, the government placed a high priority on expanding education, which reduced the illiteracy rate to about two-thirds as primary school enrollment increased. Unfortunately, in recent years school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population increases. With post-war enrollments reaching all-time highs, the quality of education has suffered. All Mozambicans are required by law to attend school through the primary level. After grade 7, students must take standardized national exams to enter secondary school, which runs from 8th to 10th grade. Secondary school students study Portuguese, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, History, Geography, Physical Education, Technical Drawing, and English (which all schoolchildren begin in grade 6). Another round of national exams after grade 10 allows passage into pre-university school (grades 11 and 12), in which students have the opportunity to study all of the former subjects (minus Physical Education) plus Philosophy and French. Space in Mozambican universities is extremely limited; thus most students who complete pre-university school do not immediately proceed onto university studies. Many go to work as teachers or are unemployed. There are also institutes specializing in agricultural, technical, or pedagogical studies which students may attend after grade 10 in lieu of a pre-university school, which give more practical educations. A lot of children of Mozambique don't go to primary school, because they have to work for their families' subsistence farms for a living.
Religion
According to the
1997 Second General Population and Housing
Census, the religions of the polled population were as follows:
24.2% identified themselves as
Roman Catholic;
24.25% claimed to not be affiliated with a religion;
18.7% adhering to
Zionism (an African form of Christianity);
17.8% of the population were cited as
Muslims;
11.45% as other non-Catholic Christians;
3.6% as "other".
The
Roman-Catholic church has established twelve dioceses (Beira, Chimoio, Gurué, Inhambane, Lichinga, Maputo, Nacala, Nampula, Pemba, Quelimane, Tete, and Xai-Xai - archdioceses are Beira, Maputo and Nampula). Statistics for the dioceses range from a low 7.44% Catholics in the population in the diocese of Chimoio, to 87.50% in Quelimane diocese (2006 official Catholic figures).
Muslims are particularly present in the North of the country. They are organised in several "tariqa" or brotherhoods (of the Qadiriya or Shadhuliyyah branch). Two national organisation also exist - the Conselho Islamico de Mocambique (reformists) and the Congresso Islamico de Mocambique (pro-sufi). There are also important Indo-Pakistani associations as well as some Shia and particularly Ismaili communities.
Among the main
Protestant churches are
Igreja União Baptista de Moçambique, the
Assembleias de Deus, the
Seventh-day Adventists, the
Anglican Church of Mozambique, the
Igreja do Evangelho Completo de Deus, the
Igreja Metodista Unida, the
Igreja Presbiteriana de Moçambique, the
Igreja de Cristo and the
Assembleia Evangélica de Deus.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is also present as well as the
Jehovah's Witnesses and the Brazilian Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus.
Music
Main articles: Music of Mozambique
Mozambique has distinct styles of music and distinct patterns of use of instruments. Some of the music styles fall into the classification of
Lusophone musical culture.
See also
★
List of Mozambique-related topics
★
Communications in Mozambique
★
Liga dos Escuteiros de Moçambique
★
List of conservation areas of Mozambique
★
Military of Mozambique
★
Public holidays in Mozambique
★
Transport in Mozambique
References
1. James H. Mittelman, ''Underdevelopment and the Transition to Socialism: Mozambique and Tanzania''. 1981, London, Academic Press. p.38.
2. Colin Darch, ''Worlb Bibliographical Series: Mozambique''. 1987; Oxford; Clio. Introductionh, pp. xviii, xix.
3. Special Investigation into the death of President Samora Machel
4. "Mozambique". ''CIA World Factbook.'' Retrieved 22 May 2007.
Bibliography
★ Abrahamsson, Hans ''Mozambique: The Troubled Transition, from Socialist Construction to Free Market Capitalism'' London: Zed Books, 1995
★ Cahen, Michel ''Les bandits: un historien au Mozambique_, Paris: Gulbenkian, 1994
★ Pitcher, Anne ''Transforming Mozambique: The politics of privatisation, 1975–2000'' Cambridge, 2002
★ Newitt, Malyn ''A History of Mozambique'' Indiana University Press
★ Varia, "Religion in Mozambique", ''LFM: Social sciences & Missions'' No. 17, Dec. 2005
External links
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Religion in Mozambique
Government
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Republic of Mozambique Official Government Portal
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Health Ministry
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Science and Technology Portal
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National Petroleum Institute
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Instituto Nacional de Estatística The National Statistical Office
Business, Investment and Legal Information
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Mozambique Business and Information Portal Club of Mozambique - Business Portal
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Centro de Arbitragem Laboral CAL - Centro de Arbitragem Laboral
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AFIM AFIM - Associação do Forum de Investidores de Moçambique
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ACM ACM - Associação Comercial de Moçambique
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Mozlegal, Lda Mozlegal - Legal and Business services
Economics, Trade and Development
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USAID Trade & Investment Project
Observing politics
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Mozambique Political Process Bulletin
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News
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The Mozambique News Agency - AIM Reports
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Agência de Informação de Moçambique
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Independent Weekly from Maputo in Portuguese
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Independent Newspaper from Maputo in Portuguese
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Indian Ocean Newsletter - Mozambique
Forums
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The most popular Forum in Mozambique
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MozamBIG-Forum.com - The best place to discuss Mozambique (in Portuguese)
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Imensis Comunity Forum
Overviews
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BBC News Country Profile - ''Mozambique''
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CIA World Factbook - ''Mozambique''
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Directories
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Open Directory Project - ''Mozambique'' directory category
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Mozambique Tourism Guide
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