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'Montenegrins' (Serbian/Montenegrin: Црногорци/''Crnogorci'') are a South Slavic people who are primarily associated with the Republic of Montenegro. In both English and Serbo-Croatian, the term denotes both the nation and the ethnic group with a slightly different meaning, as well as being a regional designation.

Contents

Identity and population

History

Medieval Times

Modern

Yugoslavia-era

Seeking Independence

Controversy about Montenegrin ethnic identity

Present situation

Language

Culture

Montenegrin Names

Religion

Trivia

See also

External links

References

Identity and population

In Montenegro, ethnic Montenegrins and Serbs are divided largely on the basis of ethnic self-identification. The issue of Montenegrin ethnicity is debated, especially since the late 20th century, as more and more Montenegrins ceased to opt for Serbian ethnic affiliation as the primary one. The split has deepened further since the movement for full Montenegrin independence from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia began to gain ground in the mid-1990s, and ultimately narrowly succeeded in the referendum of May 2006 (having been rejected in 1992). The Montenegro Serbs though, do not consider themselves separate from the Montenegrin nation but instead believe all Montenegrins are in fact at least to some degree Serb. The sense of being Montenegrins is somewhat accepted by all of the country's non-Catholic Slavs.
In the 2003 census, over 270,000 or ''43%'' of the population of Montenegro identified themselves as ethnic Montenegrins, while around 200,000 or ''32%'' identified themselves as Serbs. The number of "Montenegrins" and "Serbs" fluctuates wildly from census to census, not due to real changes in the populace, but due to changes in how people experience their identity. According to the 2002 census, there are around 70,000 ethnic Montenegrins in Serbia, accounting for ''0.92%'' of the Republic's population. The number of Montenegrin citizens in Serbia runs to several hundreds of thousands (nearly 300,000 est.), but most of them identify as Serbs. In addition, a significant number of Serbs in Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina are of Montenegrin ancestry, but exact numbers are difficult to assess - the Montenegrins contributed greatly to the colonization of Serbia in the 19th century, with the entire population of Sumadija and the surroundings being populated by Montenegrins, with the majority of the Serbian 19th & early 20th century ruling classes and intelligence being from Montenegro.

History

Main articles: History of Montenegro

Medieval Times

During medieval times, its territories often shifted possession, but the medieval principalities of Doclea and Zeta under local rulers were fairly long-lived and have paved the path for what will ultimately become the modern Montenegro. In 1496, Zeta fell under Ottoman rule, but the Turkish influence was fairly limited to cities while Montenegrins tribes, although disunited, had control over the surrounding hills. They formed a loosely governed theocracy of "prince-bishops", starting with Archbishop Vavil in 1516.
During the 12th century, the area became known as the Principality of Zeta. Between 1276 and 1309, Zeta was ruled by the Queen Jelena, widow of the Serbian King Uroš I. She secured autonomy for Zeta within Nemanjić's Serbia and built and restored around 50 monasteries, most notably Saint Srđ and Vakh on the Bojana River under Shkodër/Skadar. The name Montenegro (''Crna Gora'') is mentioned for the first time in the charter of St. Nicholas' monastery in Vranjina, dating to 1296 during Jelena's reign. Under King Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić, at the beginning of the 14th century, the Archdiocese in Bar was the biggest feudal lord in Zeta.
Throughout the 14th century, the Houses of Balšić and Crnojević contested for control over the Montenegrin territories until the Crnojevićs attained supremacy in the 14th century. Under the Crnojevićs, the Serbian Church reached its peak. In 1496, the Ottomans conquered part, but not all, of Montenegro.

Modern

The Montenegrin clans of Montenegro have created a unique tribal organization under Ottoman rule since the 16th century, and achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. The Montenegrins were gathered around the Metropolitans of the Cetinje Metropolitanate, which further led to national awakening of the Montenegrins, the creation of a theocratic state and its advancement into a secular and independent country.
The rule of the House of Petrović in the 18th and 19th century unified the Montenegrins and established strong ties with Russia and later Serbia, with occasional help from Austro-Hungarian Empire. That period was marked by several clashes with Turkish conquerors as well as by a firmer establishment of a self-governed principality.
In 1878, the Congress of Berlin recognized Montenegro as the 27th independent state in the world. Montenegro participated in the Balkan Wars of 1911-1912, as well as in World War I on the side of allies.

Yugoslavia-era

Montenegro unconditionally joined Serbia in November 26, 1918 in a controversial decision of the Podgorica Assembly, and soon afterwards became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed to Yugoslavia. A number of Montenegrin chieftains, disappointed by the effective disappearance of Montenegro, which they perceived to have resulted from political manipulation, rose up in arms during January 1919 in an uprising known as the Christmas Rebellion, which was crushed in a severe, comprehensive military campaign in 1922-23. In 1929 the newly renamed Kingdom of Yugoslavia was reorganised into provinces (''banovine'') one of which, Zeta Banovina, encompassed the old Kingdom of Montenegro and had Cetinje as its administrative centre.
Between two world wars, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia opposed the Yugoslav monarchy and its unification policy, and supported Montenegrin autonomy, gaining considerable support in Montenegro. During World War II, many Montenegrins joined the Yugoslav partisan forces, although the portion joining the chetniks was also significant. One third of all officers in the partisan army were Montenegrins. They also gave a disproportional number of highest ranked party officials and generals. During WWII Italy occupied Montenegro (in 1941) and annexed to the Kingdom of Italy the area of Kotor, where there was a small Roman community (descendants from the populations of the renaissance Albania Veneta). The Independent State of Montenegro was created under fascist control (the Queen of Italy, Elena of Montenegro, was daughter of the former king of Montenegro) when Krsto Zrnov Popović returned from exile in Rome in 1941 to attempt to lead the Zelenaši ("Green" party), who supported the reinstatement of the independent Montenegrin monarchy. These forces were called the Lovćen Brigade. Montenegro was ravaged by a terrible guerrilla war, mainly after Nazi Germany replaced the defeated Italians in September 1943.
When the second Yugoslavia was formed in 1945, the Communists who led the Partisans during the war formed the new régime. They recognized, sanctioned and fostered a national identity of Montenegrins as a people distinct from the Serbs and other south Slavs. The number of people who were registered as Montenegrins in Montenegro was at 90% in 1948, it has been dropping since, to 62% in 1991. With the rise of Serbian and Montenegrin nationalism in the late 80's the number of citizens who declared themselves Montenegrin dropped sharply from 61.7%, in the 1991 census, to 43.16% in 2003. For a detailed overview of these trends, see the Demographic history of Montenegro.
Initially, after the fall of Communism in the early 1990s, the idea of a distinct Montenegrin identity has been taken over by independence-minded Montenegrins. The ruling Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS) (reformed communists), led by the prime minister Milo Đukanović and the president Momir Bulatović, was firmly allied with Slobodan Milošević throughout this period and opposed such movements.
During recent Bosnian War and Croatian War (1991-1995) Montenegro participated with its police and paramilitary forces in the attacks on Dubrovnik and Bosnian towns along with Serbian troops. It conducted persecutions against Bosniak refugees who were arrested by Montenegrin police and transported to Serb camps in Foča, where they were executed.^[1]

Seeking Independence

However, in 1997 a full-blown rift occurred within DPS, and Đukanović's faction won over Bulatović's, who formed a new Socialist People's Party of Montenegro (SNP). The DPS distanced itself from Milošević and gradually took over the independence idea from Liberal Alliance of Montenegro and SDP, and has won all elections since.
In the fall of 1999, shortly after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the Đukanović-led Montenegrin leadership came out with a platform for the re-definition of relations within the federation that called for more Montenegrin involvement in the areas of defence and foreign policy, though the platform fell short of pushing for independence. After Milošević's overthrow on October 5, 2000, Đukanović for the first time came out in support of full independence and succeeded in his quest by winning a vote on independence on 22 May 2006.

Controversy about Montenegrin ethnic identity

While Montenegro and Serbia have practically always (up to 1918) been distinct states, the Montenegrins of the time almost universally considered themselves as Serbs. In the 19th century national romanticism among the South Slavs fuelled the desire for unification, particularly between the Montenegrins and the Serbians. They were considered as two parts of a single Serb nation.
The closeness of the Montenegrin ethnic identity with that of the Serbs is evidenced by a number of cultural and political factors during this period:


★ During Petar I Petrović Njegoš's reign, the basic textbook in state schools was called "The Serb elementary reading book". Another edition was published during Petar II Petrović Njegoš's rule;

★ During the reign of Danilo II Petrovic Njegos, the pupils had classes in Serb Grammar; Montenegrin History; and Serb History.

★ The geography syllabus at the College of Theology consisted of "studying the Serb lands independent, subjugated and occupied as well as the main cities, places and villages in the entire Serbdom".

★ The geography textbook for the 3rd grade of elementary school, in 1911, said:
::In Montenegro live only true and pure Serbs who speak the Serbian language... Besides Montenegro there are more Serb lands in which our Serb brothers live... Some of them are as free as we are and some are subjugated to foreigners.

★ Numerous school certificates, passports and similar documents preserved marked the bearer's nationality as "Serbian";

★ The 1909 census, undertaken by the Principality of Montenegro, recorded that 95% of the population identified themselves as Serbs.
On the other hand, it is undeniable that the uniqueness of the Montenegrin identity is based on centuries-long distinct traditions, statehood, and dialectal and cultural particularities. The exact roots of the idea of a distinct Montenegrin ethnic identity are difficult to trace, as the Serbian and Montenegrin identities were long considered compatible rather than opposing, although Montenegrins were documented as an ethnic group since before the 1900's^[2].
Perhaps the turning point came with the Podgorica Assembly, where the pro-independence group called ''zelenaši'' (" the greens"), which promoted "nationalism, localism, and chauvinism" lost to the pro-unionist ''bjelaši'' ("the whites"), which promoted "national nihilism" under debatable conditions.^[3] The repercussions of that unfortunate split last to this day. The proponents of Montenegrin uniqueness are sometimes pejoratively referred to as "zelenaši" by the pro-unionists, while the proponents of Montenegrin-Serb dual identity are sometimes called pejoratively "bjelaši" by the Montenegrin independists. The split into communist partisans and royalist chetniks during World War II, although chiefly ideological, was not without consequences to the national identity issue. The communists, who won the war against the Chetniks, actively promoted Montenegrin ethnicity and nationhood since 1945. As witnessed by the censuses 1948-1991, the introduction of Montenegrin ethnicity was embraced by many. Proponents of pro-unionist ideas in Montenegro maintain that this was due either because it was not actively confronted by a Serbian identity, or because it was (as many Serb nationalists put it) imposed by propaganda and force. However, during the latest national census that was conducted in a free and democratic manner, most Montenegrins still declared themselves as having a Montenegrin ethnicity - without opting for the optional Serbian identity.

Present situation

The political rift in late 1990s caused the Serbian/Montenegrin ethnic issue to resurface.


The population of Montenegro is presently roughly divided on ethnic and political issues between the group composed of the ethnic Montenegrins, ethnic Bosniaks, ethnic Muslims, ethnic Croats and Albanians on one side, and the group composed of the ethnic Serbs on the other. The former group forms a majority over the latter and has repeatedly won national elections.
Various notable people in Montenegro support Montenegrin independence and acknowledge the right of citizens in Montenegro to declare themselves as ethnic Montenegrins. Noted supporters of independence include famous statesman Milo Đukanović and the Speaker of Montenegro's Parliament Ranko Krivokapić. Of the minorities, these include the historical scientist Šerbo Rastoder (a Bosniak from Berane), don Branko Sbutega (a Roman Catholic priest from Kotor, declared as a Croat, who died April 27 2006), and journalist Esad Kočan (a Bosniak).
A number of notable ethnic Montengrins include famous footballer Dejan Savićević, politician Slavko Perović, comedian Branko Babović, Sekula Drljević, popular singer Vlado Georgiev, actor Žarko Laušević, Šako Polumenta, fashion model Marija Vujović, the rock group Perper, renowned musician Rambo Amadeus, Archbishop Miraš Dedeić, Montenegrin ruler Ivan I Crnojević and former President of Serbia and Montenegro Svetozar Marović.
A number of Montenegrins living outside of Montenegro, primarily in Serbia, still maintain the Montenegrin lore, family ties and clan affiliation. They remain nominally Montenegrins by these standards, yet at censa they declare themselves mostly as Serbs. Some have risen to high cultural, economic and political positions and are widely known as Serbs while few know that they to be of Montenegrin roots. For example, even Slobodan Milošević was a Serb of Montenegrin descent, the first generation of his family to be born in Serbia. Meanwhile, his brother, the former ambassador to Russia Borislav Milošević, declares himself an ethnic Montenegrin.
Other prominent Serbs descending from partly or fully from Montenegro include linguist and major reformer of modern Serbian language Vuk Karadžić, revolutionary leader and founder of the Karađorđević dynasty Đorđe Petrović (most notably Aleksandar Karađorđević), first Serbian modern monarch and founder of the Obrenović dynasty Miloš Obrenović, notable Balkanologist and geographer Jovan Cvijić, Serbian monarchist politician and orchestrator of opposition against Milosevic's dictatorship in Serbia Vuk Drašković, the wartime leader of the Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić,^[4] current democratic President of Serbia Boris Tadić,^[5] assassinated warlord Željko Ražnatović-Arkan who was only half-montenegrin,^[6] famous poet and writer Matija Bećković, editor-in-chief of high circulation ''Večernje novosti'' daily Manojlo Vukotić, former basketball star Žarko Paspalj, current BIA chief Rade Bulatović, Serbian Interior Minister Dragan Jočić[2], Serbian constitutional court president Slobodan Vučetić[3], and half-montenegrin actress Milla Jovovich.^[7]

Language

Main articles: Montenegrin language

Montenegrins speak the Ijekavian variant of Shtokavian dialect of the Serbo-Croatian language. Neo-shtokavian Eastern-Herzegovinian sub-dialect is spoken in the North-West (largest city Niksic), and old shtokavian Zeta subdialect is spoken in the rest of Montenegro, including capitals Podgorica and Cetinje, and eastern Sanjak. The North-Western, Eastern-Herzegovinian is also base of Serbian standard language.
Zeta dialect features additional sounds : , (occurring in other jekavian dialects as well) and (shared with other old-štokavian dialects). Both subdialects are charactericized by highly specific accents (shared with other old-štokavian dialects) and several "hyper-ijekavisms" (i.e. ''nijesam'', where the rest of shtokavian area uses ''nisam'') and "hyper-iotations" (''đevojka'' for ''djevojka'', ''đeca'' for ''djeca'' etc) (these features, especially the hyper-iotation, are more prominent in Zeta subdialect). This puts them on the opposite side of Serbian, in the ekavijan-ijekavijan spectrum, Croatian and Bosnian being in the middle.
On sociolinguistic level, the language has been classified as a dialect of Serbian, being previously a dialect of Serbo-Croatian. Montenegrin constitution currently defines Serbian as the official language. However, along with the campaign for independence, a movement for recognition of Montenegrin language as separate from Serbian has emerged, finding the basis for separate language identity mostly in above-mentioned dialectal specifics. The current pro-independence government did not particularly embrace the movement, but did not oppose it either; trying to overcome the situation, the language school classes were renamed from "Serbian language" to "mother language", with fierce opposition from pro-Serbian circles. In the 2003 census, 63.49% of Montenegrin citizens stated that they speak the Serbian language, while 21.53% stated that they speak Montenegrin.

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Montenegro

The most important dimension of Montenegrin culture is the ethic ideal of ''Čojstvo i Junaštvo'', roughly translated as "Humanity and Bravery". Another result of its centuries long warrior history, is the unwritten code of Chivalry that Marko Miljanov, one of the most famous warriors in his time, tried to describe in his book ''Primjeri Čojstva i Junaštva'' (Examples of Humanity and Bravery) at the end of 19th century. Its main principles stipulate that to deserve a true respect of its people, a warrior has to show virtues of integrity, dignity, humility, self-sacrifice for the just cause if necessary, respect for others, and along with the bravery. In the old days of battle, it resulted in Montenegrins fighting to the death, since being captured was considered the greatest shame.
It is still very much engraved, to a greater or lesser extent, on every Montenegrin's ethical belief system and it is essential in order to truly understand them. Coming from non-warrior backgrounds, most other South-Slavic nations never fully grasped its meaning, resulting in reactions which ranged from totally ignoring it, in the best case, to mocking it and equating it with backwardness.
Most of extraordinary examples of Montenegrin conduct during its long history can be traced to the code. Its importance is also reflected in the generally very low level of religiousness in the Montenegrin population. It is probably fair to say that the ethical beliefs of Montenegrins more closely match those of Stoicism than those of Christianity.
Montenegrins' long-standing history of fighting for independence is invariably linked with strong traditions of folk epic poetry. A prominent feature of Montenegrin culture is the gusle, a one-stringed instrument played by a story-teller who sings or recites stories of heroes and battles in decasyllabic verse. These traditions are stronger in the northern parts of the country and are also shared with people in eastern Herzegovina, western Serbia and central Dalmatia.
On the substratum of folk epic poetry, poets like Petar II Petrović Njegoš, the Montenegrin icon, have created their own expression. Njegoš's epic book ''Gorski Vijenac'' (''The Mountain Wreath'') presents the central point of Montenegrin culture.
On the other hand, Adriatic cities like Herceg-Novi, Kotor and Budva had strong trade and maritime tradition, and presented an entry-point for Venetian, Ragusan and other Catholic influences. Possession of those cities often changed, but their population was basically a mixture of Orthodox and Catholic religions and traditions. These cities were incorporated into Montenegro only after the fall of Austria-Hungary. In those cities, stronger influences of medieval and renaissance architecture, painting, and lyric poetry can be found.

Montenegrin Names

Main articles: List of Montenegrin names

Religion

Historically, most Montenegrins, living in the hinterland, nominally belonged to the Serbian Orthodox Church (SOC), whose presence on the territory dates from early medieval times. The Roman Catholic Church had a stronger influence in the Adriatic cities, especially in the area of the Bay of Kotor, known as the ''Boka'' which was ruled by the Venetians for 500 years until 1797, to be followed by Austria until 1918.
The two communities lived in religious tolerance and a maintained a good relationship. After the decline of the Venetian Republic and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and following the incorporation of the coastal cities into the modern Montenegrin state, the number of Catholics steadily declined. Today, the remaining slavic Catholics in Montenegro identify as Croats, Bokelji, or Montenegrins in the ethnic sense. Catholics of Albanian ethnicity are also known as Malësors, meaning ''highlanders'' in Albanian.
As with ethnic affiliation and the name of the language, the split among Montenegrins is also present in the choice of religion (albeit to a far lesser extent). In 1993, the Montenegrin Orthodox Church was formed (claiming continuation from the autocephalous Montenegrin Orthodox Church from 1894/7-1918/20). The church is not recognized by other Orthodox churches, and its founders were condemned by the SOC Holy Synod. The exact number of followers of the MOC is not known exactly, as the 2003 census only recorded whether someone was Eastern Orthodox, but not which church they belonged to. However, it is safe to say that the overwhelming majority of the Eastern Orthodox Montenegrins belong to the Serb Orthodox Church, which numerous polls have shown to be the single most trusted institution in Montenegro.
There are also many ethnic Montenegrins that prefer Islam as their religion, they are 20% of the population.

Trivia

★ Nero Wolfe, the fictional detective created by Rex Stout, was born and raised in Montenegro.

See also

★ Demographic history of Montenegro

★ List of Montenegrins

★ Serbs of Montenegro

★ Red Croats

External links

★ Montenegro... its inhabitants, Orthodox Serbs, A Political History of Europe since 1814 by Charles Seignobos; H. Holt and Company, New York, 1900

★ The Serbian origin of the Montenegrins by Petar Vlahović

★ An unconquered race, National Geographic

★ Montenegrins and other Serbs by Đorđe Tomašević

★ Ideological roots of Montenegrin nation and Montenegrin separatism by Slavenko Terzić

★ The Montenegrin Association of America

★ Špiro Kulišić: O Etnogenezi Crnogoraca (''On Ethnogenesis of Montenegrins'') (in Montenegrin)

References

1. PORODICA NEDŽIBA LOJE O NJEGOVOM HAPŠENJU I DEPORTACIJI 1992. GODINE [1]
2. Immigration Form, 1906
3. D.Vujovic, Ujedinjenje Crne Gore i Srbije, Istorijski institut NRCG, 1962, p. 8: Cited by "History of Montenegro", Montenet.org
4. BBC: Profile: Radovan Karadzic
5. Kurir, June 30 2004: Veselin konjevic: O'kle je Boris
6. IWPR: Milka Tadic: Arkanova Crnogorska Veza
7. Glas Javnosti, July 17 2000: Koreni iz lepih Vasojevića (an interview with Milla's father)