(Redirected from Monastic orders)'Monasticism' (from
Greek: ''monachos'' — a solitary person) is the
religious practice in which one renounces
worldly pursuits in order to fully devote one's life to spiritual work.
Many religions have monastic elements, including
Buddhism,
Christianity,
Hinduism,
Islam, and
Jainism, though the expressions differ considerably. Those pursuing a monastic life are usually called ''
monks'' or ''brothers'' (male), and ''
nuns'' or ''sisters'' (female). Both monks and nuns may also be called ''monastics''.
Buddhist monasticism
The order of
Buddhist monks and original nuns was founded by
Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering
ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under, and was initially fairly
eremetic in nature. Monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that monks required, and provided shelter for monks when they were needed.
After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily
cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy
vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns – the
Patimokkha – relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of monks or nuns. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada monks follow around 227 rules. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns).
Buddhist monasticism with its tradition of
councils, missions, and being a source of knowledge and literacy spread from India to the Middle East and eventually west, with Christian monasticism following in its footsteps in the areas where Emperor
Ashoka sent missions.
The Buddhist, the male
bhikkhu assembly, and the female
bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, the Buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the Buddha's step-mother,
Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner.
Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers – providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.
Young Buddhist monks in
TibetA monk, known as a ''Bhikkhu'' in
Pali or Bhikshu in
Sanskrit, first ordains as a ''Samanera'' (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than 8. Samaneras live according to the
Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Nuns follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years.
The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline,
Christian monasticism
Monasticism in Christianity is a family of similar traditions that began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution by the Scriptures.
The focus of Christian monasticism is on an ideal called the
religious life, also called the
counsels of perfection. The words of
Jesus which are the cornerstone for this ideal are "be ye holy like your heavenly Father is holy."
Christian
cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West started in
Egypt, which had warm temperatures ideal for living away from society. Originally, all Christian
monks were
hermits; and especially in the
Middle East this continued to be very common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages. Saint
Anthony the Great is cited by
Athanasius as one of these early '
eremitic monks.'
But not everybody is fit for solitary life, and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported. The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious; and around
318 Saint
Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian
monastery. Soon, similar institutions were establish throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable monasteries of the East include:
★
Monastery of Saint Anthony, which is the oldest Christian monastery in the world.
★
Mar Awgin founded a monastery on Mt. Izla above
Nisibis in
Mesopotamia (~
350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China.
★ St.
Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to
Bethlehem (
483), and this is considered the mother of all monasteries of the
Eastern Orthodox churches.
★
Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai was founded between 527 and 565 in the Sinai desert by order of Emperor
Justinian.
In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were set by
Saint Benedict of Nursia and St. Augustine. St. Benedict created the
Rule of Saint Benedict at his monastery in
Monte Cassino, Italy (
529), which was the seed of
Roman Catholic monasticism in general, and of the
Order of Saint Benedict in particular. The Rule of Saint Benedict would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, spawning many other
Religious Orders, and it is still in use today. The Rule of St. Augustine, due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, most chiefly the Canons Regular.
Around the 12th century, the
Franciscan,
Carmelite,
Dominican, and
Augustinian mendicant orders chose to live in city
convents among the people instead of secluded in monasteries.
Today new expressions of Christian monasticism, many of which
ecumenical, are developing in places such as the
Bose Monastic Community in Italy, the
Fraternités de Jerusalem throughout Europe, and the
Taizé Community in France, in addition to the Evangelical Protestant
New Monasticism movement.
Hindu monasticism
In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.
[1] A Hindu monk is called a s''anyāsī, sādhu'', or ''swāmi''.
[2] A nun is called a ''sanyāsini'', ''sadhavi'', or ''swāmini''. Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs.
[3] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide sadhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.
[4] A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally,
Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while
Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut.
A ''Sadhu's'' vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:
★ owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aides such as eyeglasses;
★ having any contact with, looking at, thinking of or even being in the presence of women;
★ eating for pleasure;
★ possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way, shape or form;
★ maintaining personal relationships.
:''See also:
Dashanami Sampradaya
Islamic monasticism
While many Muslims do not believe in monasticism (emphasizing the Qur'anic injunction (57:27), in which
Allah rebukes monasticism as a man-made practice that is not divinely prescribed), various Sufi orders, or 'tariqas' encourage practices which resemble those of monastic brotherhoods in other faiths.
Dervishes — initiates of
Sufi orders — believe that love is a projection of the essence of
God to the
universe. Many of the dervishes are mendicant
ascetics who have taken the vow of poverty. Though some of them are beggars by choice, others work in common professions; many Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen.
All genuine dervish brotherhoods trace their origins from two of the close companions of the Prophet
Muhammad,
Ali and
Abu Bakr. They differ from spiritual brotherhoods of Christianity in that they usually do not live together in a 'monastery' setting; in this sense they do not go 'around' the world. Rather, they go 'through' it; it is actually a stipulation that they have families, and earn an ethical living.
Whirling dance, which is the practice of the
Mevlevi order in Turkey, is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy (''majdhb'') and connection with Allah. Rif'ai, in their mystical states, apparently skewer themselves without engendering any harm. Other groups include the
Shadhili, a gnosis based order who practice the 'hadra' or 'presence', a dance-like breathing exercise involving the repetition of divine names. All genuine brotherhoods and subgroups chant verses of
Qur'an, and must follow the
sharia, or Islamic sacred law.
Traditionally monks in Islam have been known as
fakirs. This term has also been applied to Hindu monks.
Jain monasticism
Jainism has two branches, and each has a slightly different take on monasticism.
Digambara monks do not wear
clothing; however, they do not consider themselves to be
nude — they are wearing the
environment. Digambaras believe that practice represents a refusal to give in to the body's demands for comfort and
private property — only Digambara ascetics are required to forsake clothing. Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a
peacock feather broom and a
water gourd. They also believe that women are unable to obtain
moksha. As a result, of the around 6000 Jain nuns, barely 100 are Digambaras. The
Shvetambaras are the other main Jainist sect. Svetambaras, unlike Digambaras, neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity, nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. Shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures.
Monasticism in other religions
Judaism Judaism does not support the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty, but two thousand years ago taking
Nazirite vows was a common feature of the religion. Nazirite Jews abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead. However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property. In Modern Hebrew, the term
Nazir is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics.
Sikhism specifically forbids the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh monk conclaves or brotherhoods.
Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore the elect were probably at least partially monastic.
Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the
Sea Organization or just
Sea Org. They work only for the
Church of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.
Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e.
celibate male and female
acharyas or
missionaries) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat. They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training.
Yungdrung
Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, however, the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.
See also
★
Order (religious)
★
Monastery
★
Christian monasticism
★ "
Into Great Silence" The award winning documentary of life within the Carthusian monsastery of 'La Grande Chartreuse' by Philip Groning.
★
New Monasticism
★
Rule of St Benedict
★
Carmelite Rule of St. Albert
★
Matha
Further reading
★ Fracchia, Charles, "Living Together Alone: The new American monasticism ", Harper & Row, 1979. ISBN 0060630116.
★ Gruber, Mark. 2003. "Sacrifice In the Desert: A Study Of An Egyptian Minority Through The Lens of Coptic Monasticism." Lanham: University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2539-8
★ Johnston, William M. (ed.). 2000. ''Encyclopedia of Monasticism''. 2 vols., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
★ Lawrence, C. H. 2001. ''Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages'' (3rd Edition). New York: Longmans. ISBN 0-582-40427-4
★ Zarnecki, George. 1985. The Monastic World: The Contributions of The Orders. pp. 36-66, in Evans, Joan (ed.). 1985. ''The Flowering of the Middle Ages.'' London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
External links
★
Links to Coptic Orthodox Monasteries of Egypt and the world
★
History of Monasticism
★
Monasticism Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage
★
"Woman" – The correct perspective for the monastic – An eastern point of view
★
Korean Franciscan Brotherhood
★
Orthodox Monasticism Saint Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery
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