MINOTAUR

In Greek mythology, the 'Minotaur' (Greek: Μινόταυρος, ''Minótauros'') was a creature that was said to be part man and part bull.^[1] It dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction built for King Minos of Crete and designed by the architect Daedalus to hold the Minotaur. He and his son Icarus were ordered to build it. The historical site of Knossos is usually identified as the site of the labyrinth. The Minotaur was eventually killed by Theseus.
"Minotaur" is Greek for "Bull of Minos". The bull was known in Crete as 'Asterion', a name shared with Minos's foster father.

Contents

Birth and appearance

The price that brought Theseus

Interpretations

Modern literary and artistic references to the Minotaur

Poetry

Fiction

Visual Art

Picasso and the Minotaur

See also

References

Notes

Birth and appearance

Before he ascended the throne of Crete, Minos struggled with his brothers for the right to rule. Minos prayed to Poseidon to send him a snow-white bull, as a sign of approval by the gods for his reign. He promised to sacrifice the bull as an offering, and as a symbol of subservience. A beautiful white bull rose from the sea, but when Minos saw it, he coveted it for himself. He assumed that Poseidon would not mind, so he kept it and sacrificed the best specimen from his herd instead. When Poseidon learned about the deceit, he made Pasipha, Minos' wife, fall madly in love with the bull. She had Daedalus, the famous architect, make a wooden cow for her. Pasipha climbed into the decoy to seduce the white bull. The offspring of their lovemaking was a monster called the Minotaur.
The Minotaur, as the Greeks imagined him, had the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull.^[2] Pasiphaë nursed him in his infancy, but he grew and became ferocious. Minos, after getting advice from the Oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic labyrinth to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos' palace in Knossos.
Nowhere has the essence of the myth been expressed more succinctly than in the ''Heroides'' attributed to Ovid, where Pasiphaë's daughter complains of the curse of her unrequited love: ""the bull's form disguised the god, Pasiphaë, my mother, a victim of the deluded bull, brought forth in travail her reproach and burden." Literalist and pruriently readings that emphasize the machinery of literal copulation may intentionally obscure the mystic marriage of the god in bull form, a Minoan mythos alien to the Greeks.

The price that brought Theseus

Now it happened that Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the Athenians, who were jealous of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic festival. Others say he was killed at Marathon, Greece by the Cretan bull, his mother's former taurine lover, which Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded him to slay. The common tradition is that Minos waged war to avenge the death of his son, and won. However, Catullus, in his account of the Minotaur's birth,^[3] refers to another version in which Athens was "compelled by the cruel plague to pay penalties for the
killing of Androgeon." In this version, the Athenians are made to ask Minos what they can do to stop a terrible plague that has come upon them, and he was thus given power to make demands of them. In either case, Minos required that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, drawn by lots, be sent every ninth year (some accounts say every year) to be devoured by the Minotaur.
When the third sacrifice came round, Theseus volunteered to go to slay the monster. He promised to his father, Aegeus, that he would put up a white sail on his journey back home if he was successful. Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, fell in love with Theseus and helped him get out of the labyrinth. In most accounts she gives him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. Theseus killed the Minotaur with Aegus' sword and led the other Athenians back out of the labyrinth.^[4]
Theseus took Ariadne with him from Crete, but abandoned her enroute to Athens (Generally this is said to happen on the island of Naxos). According to Homer, she was killed by Artemis upon the testimony of Dionysus. However, later sources report that Theseus abandoned her as she slept on the island of Naxos, and there became the bride of Dionysus. The epiphany of Dionysus to the sleeping Ariadne became a common theme in Greek and Roman art, and in some of these images Theseus is shown running away. This story is also recounted in Catullus.
On his return trip, Theseus forgot to change the black sails of mourning for white sails of success, so his father, overcome with grief, leapt off the clifftop from which he had kept watch for his son's return every day since Theseus had departed into the sea. The name of the "Aegean" sea is said to derive from this event.
Minos, angry that Theseus was able to escape, imprisoned Daedalus and his son Icarus in a tall tower. They were able to escape by building wings for themselves with the feathers of birds that flew by, but Icarus died during the escape as he flew too high (in hope of seeing Apollo in his sun chariot) and the wax that held the feathers in the wing melted in the heat of the sun.

Interpretations

The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars; it is to be noted that one of the monster's names was Asterius.
The ruins of Minos' palace at Knossos have been found, but the labyrinth has not. The enormous number of rooms, staircases and corridors in the palace has led archaeologists to believe that the palace itself was the source of the labyrinth myth. Homer, describing the shield of Achilles, remarked that the labyrinth was Ariadne's ceremonial dancing ground.
Some modern mythologists regard the Minotaur as a solar personification and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case indicates the breaking of Athenian tributary relations with Minoan Crete.
According to A.B. Cook, ''Minos'' and ''Minotaur'' are only different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphae's union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull-cult may have existed by the side of that of the double axe) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin.
A historical explanation of the myth refers to the time when Crete was the main political and cultural potency in the Aegean Sea. As the fledgling Athens (and probably other continental Greek cities) was under tribute to Crete, it can be assumed that such tribute included young men and women for sacrifice. This ceremony was performed by a priest disguised with a bull head or mask, thus explaining the imagery of the Minotaur. It may also be that this priest was son to Minos.
Once continental Greece was free from Crete's dominance, the myth of the Minotaur worked to distance the forming religious consciousness of the Hellene ''poleis'' from Minoan beliefs.

Modern literary and artistic references to the Minotaur

Poetry

★ Ted Hughes wrote a poem titled "The Minotaur", the title alluding to the destruction his ex-wife Sylvia Plath's father caused in her life.

Fiction

★ Jorge Luis Borges tells the story of the Minotaur in the short story ''La casa de Asterión'' (''The House of Asterion'')", published in the collection El Aleph.

★ In the ''Divine Comedy'' Dante and Virgil confront "the infamy of Crete" at the entrance to the seventh circle of Hell. Dante knew the mythological monster from the Ars Amatoria by Ovid, where it is simply described as half-man, half-bull, but he apparently did not know of the Minotaur's images from ancient Greek iconography. Although the monster is never explicitly described by Dante, the use of verbs seems to imply the poet imagined it with the body of a bull and a human head.

★ In Mary Renault's ''The King Must Die'' minotaurs are merely men wearing bull's head masks.

★ The second part of David Gemmell's ''The Lion of Macedon'' historic fantasy, ''The Dark Prince'', features a sympathetic minotaur.

★ Thomas Burnett Swann's ''Minotaur Trilogy'' depicts the last two survivors of an ancient race of intelligent minotaurs dwelling in the forests of ancient Crete alongside other mythological creatures.

★ The minotaur plays a pivotal role in Mark Z. Danielewski's book ''House of Leaves'', although it is never directly seen.

★ Steven Sherrill's 2000 novel ''The Minotaur Takes a Cigarette Break'' has the minotaur working as a cook in North Carolina where he lives in a trailer.

★ Minotaurs are members of the White Witch's army in C. S. Lewis' fantasy series, ''The Chronicles of Narnia''.

★ The 8th ''Xanth'' book, ''Crewel Lye'' features a race of "cow-boys" and "cow-girls" who are humans with the heads of cattle.

★ The Minotaur is mentioned in Jeffrey Eugenides's ''Middlesex'' as the play that sparked the simultaneous fertilization of two main characters.

★ The Minotaur is one of the main (though for the most part, unseen) antagonists in the ''Thursday Next'' series by Jasper Fforde. He is introduced as being a Hannibal Lecter-esque serial killer, imprisoned in an unpublished fantasy novel rather than a Labyrinth.

★ Michael Ende uses both the Minotaur and its labyrinth as starting and closing points in his book ''The Mirror in the Mirror''.

★ Victor Pelevin has retold the myth of Minotaur in his 2006 short novel ''The Helmet of Horror''.

★ In his Series ''Monsters of Mythology'', Bernard Evslin retells the story of the Minotaur in his own book.

★ The Minotaur (named as Asterion) is a major character in the epic fantasy series ''The Troy Game'', by Australian author Sara Douglass where he initially plays the main antagonist of the story. This Minotaur is based closely on the one featured in the popular mythical tale of Ariadne and Theseus.

★ A Minotaur (also named Asterion) is one of the primary characters in Karen Russell's short story "''from'' Children's Reminiscences of the Westward Migration" found in her 2006 debut short-story collection, ''St. Lucy's Home for Girls Raised by Wolves''.

★ In 'The Minotaur in Pamplona', Rhys Hughes enters the Minotaur as a contestant in the encierro of San Fermín with subsequent confusion as to what side he is on.

★ Esther Tusquet's novel "El mismo mar de todos los veranos" features references to the Minotaur, Ariadne, and Theseus as compared to the protagonist's story.

★ In the role-playing game Final Fantasy VIII the Guardian Force Brothers form a pair of minotaurs.

★ In World of Warcraft the Tauren race is based on the Minotaur.

★ In God of War the Minotaur is a common enemy.

Visual Art

★ André Masson, René Iché and Georges Bataille suggested to Albert Skira the title ''Le Minotaure'' for his art publication, which ran from 1933 until it was overtaken by war in 1939; it resurfaced in 1946 as ''Le Labyrinthe''.

★ The Minotaur is a recurring character in Stanley Donwood's artwork.

★ Gustave Doré portrays the Minotaur in his illustrations of the Divine Comedy.

★ The symbolic search for the Minotaur was portrayed in the avante garde multi-screen production ''In the Labyrinth'', which premiered at Expo 67.

★ In Yuriy Norshteyn's animated film Tale of Tales, a melancholy minotaur-like figure helps a little girl to jump rope by holding one end of the rope, the other end of which is fastened to a tree.

Picasso and the Minotaur

No artist has returned so often to the theme of the Minotaur as Pablo Picasso.^[5] The Minotaur appears in many works by Pablo Picasso, particularly in the 1930s. Some of these show him raping and killing, but in other pictures he is depicted as a lover rather than a monster, appearing to be in a consensual relationship with a woman. Some critics suggest that Picasso used the Minotaur to represent himself or his sexual urges.

See also

★ USS ''Minotaur'' (ARL-15)

★ The Assyrian Shedu had a bull body and a human head.

★ The Egyptian god Apis is often depicted as a bull, or bull-headed man.

★ Ushi-oni Another bull-headed monster; from Japanese folklore

References

★ Minotaur in Greek Myth source Greek texts and art

Notes

1. ''semibovumque virem; semivirumque bovem'', according to Ovid, ''Ars Amatoria'' 2.24, one of the three lines that his friends would have deleted from his work, and one of the three that he, selecting independently, would preserve at all cost, in the apocryphal anecdote told by Albinovanus Pedo. (noted by J. S. Rusten, "Ovid, Empedocles and the Minotau" ''The American Journal of Philology'' '103'.3 (Autumn 1982, pp. 332-333) p. 332.
2. One of the figurations assumed by the river god Achelous in wooing Deianira is as a man with the head of a bull, according to Sophocles' ''Trachiniai''.
3. Carmen 64.
4. Plutarch, ''Theseus,'' 15—19; Diodorus Siculus i. I6, iv. 61; ''Bibliotheke'' iii. 1,15
5. Martin Ries, "Picasso and the Myth of the Minotaur" ''Art Journal'' '32'.2 (Winter 1972), pp. 142-145.