MILITARY RANK

'Military rank', or, more commonly, simply 'rank', is a system of grading seniority and command within armed forces or otherwise military-style organizations.
Within armed forces, the use of ranks is almost universal. The Chinese People's Liberation Army (1965–1988)[1], the Albanian Army (1966–1991)[2], and the Soviet Red Army (1918–1935) ^[1] are rare examples of armed forces which abolished rank only to re-establish them after encountering operational difficulties of command and control.

Ancient and Medieval ranks

Persian Ranks

The army of ancient Persia consisted of sizeable military groupings under individual commands. Starting at the bottom, a unit of 10 was called a ''dathabam'' and was led by a ''dathapatish''. A unit of 1,000 was a ''hazarabam'' and commanded by a ''hazarapatish''. A unit of 10,000 was a ''baivarabam'' and commanded by a ''baivarapatish''. The Greeks called such masses of troops a ''myrias'' or ''myriad''. Among mounted troops, an ''asabam'' was a cavalry unit led by an ''asapatish''.
We are aware of the following ranks in Parthian and Sassanian armies:
Commander in Chief: ''Eran Spahbod'' (to be replaced with four ''Spahbods'', one for each frontier of the Empire during the reign of Khosrau I).

★ Commander of the Cavalry: ''Aspwargan Salar'' (Parthian) or ''Aswaran Salar'' (Sassanian).

★ Commander of the Archers: ''Tirbodh''

★ Commander of the infantry: ''Paygan Salarapoo''

★ Castellan: ''Argbadh'' or ''Argbod''

★ Commander of a frontier March: ''Marzpawn'' (Parthian) or ''Marzban'' (Sassanian)

★ Marzban of Central Asian Marches was called ''Kenarang''.

Greek ranks

From 501 BC the Athenians elected each year ten individuals to the rank of ''strategos'', one for each of the ten "tribes" that had been created with the founding of the democracy. Strategos literally means "army leader," hence it is usually translated as "general." Originally these generals worked together with the old ''polemarchos'' or polemarch ("war minister" more something like "warlord") but over time the latter figure lost all military function.
The ten generals were equals of each other without any hierarchy between them: at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC the generals decided the battle plan by majority vote. Particular assignments, however, might be given to individual generals and from some point there was a regular division of responsibilities.
The rank that was subordinate to a top general was a ''taxiarchos'' or ''taxiarhos'', something akin to the modern brigadier. In Sparta, however, the title was polemarchos. Below this was the ''syntagmatarkhis'', which can be translated as "leader of a regiment" (''syntagma'') and was therefore like a modern colonel. Below him was the ''tagmatarkhis'', commanding officer of a ''tagma'' (near to the modern battalion). The rank was roughly equivalent to the ''legatus'' of a Roman legion. Next was the ''lokhagos'', an officer who led an infantry unit called a ''lokhos'' consisting of a hundred men—much like a modern company led by a captain.
A Greek cavalry (''hippiko'') regiment was called a ''hipparchia'' and was commanded by a ''hyparchos'' or hipparch, but Spartan cavalry was led by a ''hipparmostes''. A ''hippotoxotès'' was a horse archer. A Greek cavalry company was led by a ''tetrarchès'' or tetrarch.
As for the rank and file of the military in most of the Greek city states, it was made up of ordinary citizens and was organized on democratic principles. Discipline was relatively weak. Heavily armed foot soldiers were called ''hoplitès'' or hoplites and a ''hoplomachos'' was a drill or weapons instructor.
Once Athens became a naval power, the top generals had charge of the navy as well. Under them each warship was commanded by a ''trièrarchos'' or trierarch, a word which originally meant "trireme officer" but continued on when other types of vessel came into use. Moreover, as in modern navies, the different tasks associated with running a ship were delegated to different subordinates. The ''kybernètès'' was the helmsman, the ''keleusthès'' managed the rowing speed, and the ''trièraulès'' was the flute player who maintained the strike rate of oarsmen. Following further specialization, the naval strategos was replaced by a ''nauarchos'', a sea officer or admiral.
With the rise of Macedonia under Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, the Greek military became professional, tactics became more sophisticated, and additional levels of ranking developed.
Foot soldiers were organized into heavy infantry phalanxes and called ''phalangites''. They were among the first troops ever to be drilled and they fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with a leader at the head of each column or file and a secondary leader in the middle, so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed.
A ''tetrarchia'' was a unit of four files and a ''tetrarchès'' or tetrarch a commander of four files; a ''dilochia'' was a double file and a ''dilochitès'' a double-file leader; a lochos was a single file and a lochagos a file leader; a ''dimoiria'' was a half file and a ''dimoirites'' a half-file leader. Another name for the half file was a ''hèmilochion'' with a ''hèmilochitès'' as a half-file leader.
Different types of units, however, were divided differently and therefore their leaders had different titles. For example, under a numbering system by tens, a ''dekas'' or ''dekania'' was a unit of ten led by a ''dekarchos'', a ''hekatontarchia'' was a unit of hundred led by a ''hekatontarchès'', and a ''chiliostys'' or ''chiliarchia'' was a unit of a thousand led by a ''chiliarchès''.
The cavalry, for which Alexander became most famous, militarily, grew more varied. There were heavy cavalry and wing cavalry (''ilè'') units, the latter commanded by an ''ilarchès''.

Roman ranks

The use of formalized ranks came into widespread use with the Roman legions after the introduction of reforms by Julius Caesar's uncle, the politician and general, Marius, completed around 60 BC. Under the new system, a legion would be commanded by a legate (''legatus''), typically a senator, for a three-year term. Immediately beneath the legate were six military tribunes (''tribuni militum''), five of whom were young men of Equestrian rank and one a nobleman who was headed for the Senate.
The ''tribuni militari'' were the senior officers of the Roman army, who commanded the rough equivalents to the US and British armys' battalions and brigades (the relevant modern ranks being major, lieutenant colonel, colonel and brigadier general). The comparisons, however, are only approximate as the Roman army's command structure was much different than the organizational structure of the above. These arose from the medieval mercenary companies, rather than the writings of Fourth Century Roman writer Vegetius and Caesar's commentaries on his conquest of Gaul and the civil war.
The term military tribune is sometimes translated into English as "colonel"—most notably by the late classicist Robert Graves in his "Claudius" novels and his translation of Suetonius' ''Twelve Caesars''—to avoid confusion with the political "tribunes of the people".
The fighting men in the legion were formed into ''ranks'': rows of men who fought as a unit. Under the new system, legions were divided into ten cohorts (''cohortes''), each consisting of six ''centuries'', each of between 60 and 160 men. Each century was led by a centurion (''centurio''), assisted by a number of junior officers. Centuries were further broken into ten ''contubernia'', each of eight soldiers. Individual soldiers were referred to as soldiers (''milites'') or legionaries (''legionarii'').
Roman discipline was severe, with all ranks subject to corporal punishment, even death, at the commander's discretion. If a cohort broke in battle the typical punishment was called ''decimation'' (from the Latin word for ten). Every tenth soldier, selected by lot, was executed. From this the English synonym for a massacre or a large loss of life evolved.

Mongol ranks

There were no "ranks" in the Mongol Empire in the modern sense of a hierarchy of titles, although the army was organized into a hierarchical command (see "Mongol military tactics and organization"). The organization of the Mongol army was based on that of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia: the decimal system. The army was built upon a squad of ten (''arban'') led by an appointed chief. Ten of these would then compose a company of a hundred (''jaghun''), also led by an appointed chief. The next unit was a regiment of a thousand (''minghan'') led by an appointed ''noyan''. The largest organic unit was a ten thousand man unit (''tumen'') led by an appointed ''noyan''. Chinggis Khan: The Golden History of the Mongols, , , unknown, The Folio Society, 1993,

Medieval Ranks

High command in medieval armies

The king’s army was placed under the command of the High Constable as commander-in-chief. The High Constable had authority over the local constables, commanders of the garrisons of major castles. The High Constable had the help of the Field Marshal, an officer that set up the army’s camp. (Marshals acted chiefs of logistics and were also employed by royal and noble courts.) The High Constable derived his authority over the army from his role of head of the cavalry.

Origins of Modern Ranks

As the Middle Ages came to an end, the rank structure of medieval armies became more formalized. The top officers were known as commissioned officers because their rank came from a royal commission. Army commissions were reserved for the elite — the aristocracy of mainland Europe and the aristocracy and gentry of Great Britain.
The basic unit of the medieval army was the company, a band of soldiers assigned (or raised) by a vassal lord on behalf of ''his lord'' (in later times the King himself). The vassal lord in command of the company was a commissioned officer with the rank of captain. Captain was derived from the Late Latin word capitaneus (meaning ''head man'' or chief).
The commissioned officer assisting the captain with command of the company was the lieutenant. Lieutenant was derived from from the French language; the lieu meaning “place” as in a position; and tenant meaning “holding” as in “holding a position”; thus a “lieutenant” is somebody who holds a position in the absence of his superior. When he was not assisting the captain, the lieutenant commanded an unit called a platoon, particularly a more specialized platoon. The word is derived from the 17th-century French peloton, meaning a small ball or small detachment of men, which came from pelote, a ball.
The commissioned officer carrying the (infantry) company’s flag was the ensign. The word ensign was in fact derived from the Latin word insignia. In cavalry companies the equivalent rank was coronet. In English usage, these ranks were merged into the single rank of Second Lieutenant in the 19th Century.
Not all officers received a commission from the King. Certain specialists were granted a warrant, certifying their expertise as craftsmen. These warrant officers assisted the commissioned officers but ranked above the noncommissioned officers.
A noncommissioned officer (NCO) received their authority from superior officers rather than the King. The highest rank of NCO was sergeant. The first sergeants were the armed servants (men-at-arms) of the aristocracy, assigned to command, organize and train the militia units raised for battle. After years of commanding a squad, a NCO could be promoted to sergeant. While a sergeant might have commanded a squad upon promotion, he usually became a staff officer. While commissioned staff officers assisted their commander with personnel, intelligence, operations and logistics, the sergeant was a jack of all trades, concerning himself with all aspects of administration to maintain the enlisted men serving under his commander. Over time, sergeants were differentiated into many ranks as various levels of sergeants were used by the commanders of various levels of units.
A corporal commanded a squad. Squad derived from the Italian word for a “square” or “block” of soldiers. In fact, corporal was derived from the Italian caporal de squadra (head of the squad). Corporals were assisted by lancepesades. Lancepesades were veteran soldiers; lancepesade was derived from the Italian lanzia spezzata meaning broken spear - the broken spear being a metaphor for combat experience, where such an occurrence was likely. The first lancepesades were simply experienced privates; who either assisted their corporal or performed the duties of a corporal themselves. It was this second function that made armies increasingly regard their lancepesades as a grade of corporal rather than a grade of private. As a result, the rank of Lance Corporal was derived from combining lancepesade and corporal.
As the Middle Ages came to an end, kings increasingly relied on professional soldiers to fill the bottom ranks of their armies instead of militiamen. Each of these professionals began their careers as a private. The private was a man who signed a private contract with the company commander, offering his services in return for pay. The money was raised through taxation; those yeomen (smallholding peasants) who did not fulfill their annual 40-day militia service paid a tax that funded professional soldiers recruited from the yeomanry. This money was handed to the company commanders from the royal treasury, the company commanders using the money to recruit the troops.

Origins of Higher Ranks

As armies grew larger, composed of multiple companies, one captain was granted general (overall) authority over the field armies by the King. (National armies were the armies of the kings. Field armies were armies raised by the King to enter the battle field in preparation for major battles.) In French history, “lieutenant du roi” was a title borne by the officer sent with military powers to represent the king in certain provinces. A lieutenant du roi were sometimes known as a lieutenant general to distinguish him from lieutenants subordinate to mere captains. The sergeant acting as staff officer to the captain general was known as the sergeant-major general. This was eventually shortened to major general, while captain general was shortened to simply general. This is the reason why a major outranks a lieutenant, but a lieutenant general outranks a major general.
As armies grew bigger, they were split into corps. The lieutenant generals received command of these corps. The corps were split into divisions, each division headed by a major general. The division was originally an organizational structure under the corps to assist in command and control of various regiments and brigades. The corps remained the primary maneuver unit of the army, while heraldry and unit identification remained primarily a matter of the regiment. Brigades headed by brigadier generals were the units that was invented as a tactical unit, by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus. It was introduced to overcome the normal army structure, consisting of regiments. The so-called “brigada” was a mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally artillery too, designated for a special task. The size of such “brigada” was a reinforced company up to two regiments. The “brigada” was the ancient form of the nowadays “task force”.
Around the end of the 16th century, companies were grouped into regiments. The officers commissioned to lead these regiments were in fact called colonels (column officers). They were first appointed in Spain by King Ferdinand II of Aragon where they were also known as coronellos (crown officers) since they were appointed by the Crown. Thus the English pronunciation of the word colonel.
The first colonels were captains granted command of their regiments by commission of the King. The lieutenants of the colonel were the lieutenant colonels. In the 17th century, the sergeant of the colonel was the sergeant major. These were field officers, third in command of their regiments (after their colonels and lieutenant colonels), with a role similar to the older, army-level sergeant majors (although obviously on a smaller scale). The older position became known as sergeant major general to distinguish it. Over time, the sergeant was dropped from both titles since both ranks were used for commissioned officers. This gave rise to the modern ranks of major and major general.
The full title of sergeant major fell out of use until the latter part of the 18th century, when it began to be applied to the senior non-commissioned officer of an infantry battalion or cavalry regiment.
Regiments were later split into battalions with a lieutenant colonel as a commanding officer and a major as an executive officer.

Modern ranks

Most modern military services recognize three broad categories of personnel.
These are codified in the Geneva Conventions, which somewhat ambiguously distinguish "officers", "non-commissioned officers" and "enlisted men".
Apart from possible conscripted personnel one can distinguish:

Commissioned officers

Officers are distinguished from other military members by holding a commission; they are trained as leaders and hold command positions.
Officers are further separated into three levels:

★ General, Flag, or Air Officers

★ Field or Senior Officers

★ Company Grade or Junior Officers

General, Flag, or Air Officers

Officers who typically command units or formations that are expected to operate independently for extended periods of time (brigades and larger, or flotillas or squadrons of ships), are referred to variously as General Officers (army, marines, and some air forces), Flag Officers (navy), or Air Officers (some Commonwealth air forces).
General Officer ranks typically include (from the top down) General, Lieutenant General, Major General, and Brigadier General, although there are many variations like Division General or (Air-, Ground-)Force General.
Flag Officer ranks, named after the traditional practice of showing the presence of such an officer with a flag on a ship and often land, typically include (from the top down) Admiral, Vice Admiral and Rear Admiral. In some navies, such as Canada's, the rank of Commodore is a flag rank.
In the United Kingdom and most other Commonwealth air forces, Air Officer ranks usually include Air Chief Marshal, Air Marshal, Air Vice-Marshal and Air Commodore. Some air forces, however, such as those of Canada, United States or most of the Air Forces in the Americas, army General Officer ranks are used.
In some forces there may be one or more superior ranks to the common examples, above, that are given distinguishing titles, such as Field Marshal (many armies), Fleet Admiral (U.S. Navy), Marshal of the Royal Air Force, or other national air force. These ranks have often been discontinued, such as in Germany and Canada, or limited to wartime and/or honorific promotion, such as in the United Kingdom and the United States.
In various countries, particularly the United States, these may be referred to as "star ranks" for the number of stars worn on some rank insignia: typically one star for Brigadier General or equivalent with the addition of a star for each subsequent rank. In the United States five stars has been the maximum used in all services (excluding the Marines and Coast Guard which have only used four).
Some titles are not genuine ranks, but either functions assumed by generals or honorific titles. For instance, in the French Army ''Général de corps d'armée'' is a function assumed by some ''Généraux de division'', and ''Maréchal de France'' which is a distinction denoting the most superior military office, but one that has often neutered the practical command powers of those on whom it is conferred. In the United States Navy, a commodore currently is a senior captain commanding a squadron that is too small for a rear admiral to command, although that name has historically been used as a rank.

Field or Senior officers

Field officers, also called "field-grade officers" or "senior officers", are officers who typically command units that can be expected to operate independently for short periods of time (infantry battalions, cavalry or artillery regiments, large warships, air squadrons). Field officers also commonly fill staff positions.
The term "field(-grade) officer" is primarily used by armies and marines; air forces and navies generally prefer the term "senior officer." The two terms are not necessarily synonymous.
Typical army and marine Field Officer ranks include Colonel (), Lieutenant Colonel, and Major. In many Commonwealth countries the field rank of Brigadier is used, although it fills the position held by Brigadier General in other countries.
Typical naval Senior Officer ranks include Captain, Commander, and Lieutenant Commander. In some countries, the more senior rank of Commodore is also used, a position that follows the flag flying tradition (above) of Flag Officers but through the use of a dove-tail pennant of rank instead of the flag or triangular pennant of other senior officers.
Commonwealth (excluding Canada) air force Senior Officer ranks include Group Captain, Wing Commander, and Squadron Leader.

Company Grade or Junior Officers

The ranks of junior officers are the three or four lowest ranks of officers. Units under their command are generally not expected to operate independently for any significant length of time. Company grade officers also fill staff roles in some units. In some militaries, however, a captain may act as the permanent commanding officer of an independent company-sized unit, for example a signal or field engineer squadron, or a field artillery battery.
Typical army Company Officer ranks include Captain and various grades of Lieutenant. Typical naval Junior Officer ranks include various grades of Lieutenant and/or Ensign. Commonwealth (excluding Canada) air force Junior Officer ranks usually include Flight Lieutenant, Flying Officer, and Pilot Officer.

Warrant Officers

Warrant officers (as receiving authority by virtue of a ''warrant'') are a hybrid rank treated slightly differently in each country and/or service. WOs may either be effectively senior non-commissioned officers or an entirely separate grade between commissioned and non-commissioned officers, usually held by specialist personnel.

Enlisted personnel

Enlisted personnel are personnel below commissioned rank and make up the vast majority of military personnel. They are known by different names in other countries, such as Other Ranks (ORs) in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, and Non-commissioned members (NCMs) in Canada.

Non-Commissioned Officers

Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) are enlisted personnel, under the command of an officer, granted delegated authority to supervise other military members or assigned significant administrative responsibilities. In U.S. Army parlance: "NCOs are the backbone of the Army!"[3] They are responsible for the care and direct control of junior military members, often functioning in the smaller field units as Executive Officers.
Even the most senior NCO officially ranks beneath the most junior commissioned officer or warrant officer. However, most senior NCOs have more experience, possibly including combat, than junior officers. In some organizations, senior NCOs may have formal responsibility and informal respect beyond that of junior officers, but less than that of warrant officers. Many warrant officers come from the ranks of mid-career NCOs. In some countries warrant ranks replace senior enlisted ranks.
NCO ranks typically include a varying number of grades of Sergeant and Corporal (air force, army and marines), or Chief Petty Officer and Petty Officer (navy and coast guard). In many navies the term ''rate'' is used to designate specialty, while ''rank'' denotes paygrade.

Other enlisted ranks

Personnel with no command authority usually bear titles such as Private, Marine, Airman/Aircraftman and Seaman. In some countries and services, personnel in different branches have different titles. These may have a variety of grades, but these usually only reflect variations in pay, not increased authority. These may or may not technically be ranks, depending on the country and/or service.

Appointment

Appointment refers to the instrument by virtue of which the person exercises his or her authority. Officers are appointed by a Royal Commission in most monarchies or a Presidential Commission in many other countries. In the Commonwealth, Warrant Officers hold a Royal or Presidential Warrant. NCOs are appointed by an instrument of appointment, a written document, often a certificate, usually from the service head. Entry into service is often referred to as enlistment throughout the English speaking world, even in countries where soldiers do not technically enlist.
Sometimes personnel serve in an appointment which is higher than their actual rank. For instance, Commodore used to be an appointment of Captain in the Royal Navy, Lance Corporal used to be an appointment of Private in the British Army, and Master Corporal is an appointment of Corporal in the Canadian Forces.

Size of command

To get a sense of the practical meaning of these ranks—and thus to be able to compare them across the different armed services, different nations, and the variations of titles and insignia—an understanding of the relative levels and sizes of each command will be helpful. The ranking and command system used by U.S. Marine ground forces can serve as a template for this purpose. It should be remembered that different countries will often use their own systems which won't match that of the U.S. Marines. In fact, the U.S. Army assigns a different rank to command the same type of unit as the Marines.
Under this system, starting from the bottom and working up, a Corporal leads a Fireteam consisting of three other marines. A Sergeant leads a Squad consisting of three Fireteams. As a result, a full squad numbers 13 individuals.
A Lieutenant commands a Platoon, which can consist of three or four Squads. In Marine infantry units, Rifle Platoons usually consist of three Rifle Squads of 13 men each, with a Navy corpsman, the Platoon Commander, and a Platoon Sergeant (a Staff Sergeant who serves as Executive Officer). A Weapons Platoon replaces the three squads with a 60 mm mortar section, an assault section, and a medium machine gun section. An infantry Platoon can number from 42 to 55 individuals, depending on the service.
A Captain commands a Company, usually consisting of four Platoons (three Rifle Platoons and one Weapons Platoon). His command post can include a Gunnery Sergeant and as many as seven others. So a Company can comprise from roughly 175 to 225 individuals. Equivalent units also commanded by Captains are Batteries and Detachments.
A Lieutenant Colonel commands a Battalion or a Squadron , often consisting of four Companies or Sections plus the various members of his command post. A Colonel commands a Regiment or Group, often consisting of four Battalions (for an Infantry unit) or five to six Air Groups (for a Wing).
In these latter, abstractions cease to be helpful and it becomes necessary to turn to an actual unit. The 1st Battalion of the 1st Marine Regiment of the 1st Marine Division of the I Marine Expeditionary Force consists of three infantry companies, one weapons company, and one headquarters and service company. Above that, the 1st Marine Regiment (First Marines) consists of four such Battalions and one headquarters company. Marine Air Control Group 18 of 1st Marine Air Wing of the III Marine Expeditionary Force consists of four squadrons, one battery, and one detachment - a mix of differently sized units under a regimental equivalent-sized unit.
The next level has traditionally been a Brigade, commanded by a Brigadier General, and containing two or more Regiments. But this structure is considered obsolete today. At the present time, in the U.S. Army, a Brigade is roughly equal to or a little larger than a Regiment. Strength typically ranges from 1,500 to 3,500 personnel. In the U.S. Marines, Brigades are only formed for certain missions. In size and nature they are larger and more varied collections of Battalions than is common for a Regiment, fitting them for their traditional role as the smallest formation able to operate independently on a battlefield without external logistical tactical support.
The level above Regiment and Brigade is the Division, commanded by a Major General and consisting of from 10,000 to 20,000 persons. The 1st Marine Division, for example, is made up of four Marine Regiments (of the type described above), one Assault Amphibian Battalion, one Reconnaissance Battalion, two Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalions, one Combat Engineer Battalion, one Tank Battalion, and one Headquarters Battalion—totalling more than 19,000 Marines. (Within the Headquarters Battalion are one Headquarters Company, one Service Company, one Military Police Company, one Communications Company, and one Truck Company.) An equivalent elsewhere within the same Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) might be a MEF Logistics Group (MLG) - which is not a regimental-sized unit (as the word "group" implies), but rather a large support unit consisting of several battalions of support personnel.
Considering such a variety of units, the command sizes for any given rank will vary widely. Not all units are as troop intensive as infantry forces need to be. Tank and artillery crews, for example, involve far less personnel. Numbers also differ for non-combat units such as quartermasters, cooks, and hospital staff. Beyond this, in any real situation, not all units will be full strength and there will be various attachments and detachments of assorted specialists woven throughout the system.
The 1st Marine Division is part of the I Marine Expeditionary Force, which also includes the 3rd Marine Air Wing, 1st Service Support Group, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade, three Marine Expeditionary Units (featuring helicopter groups), and a Battalion-sized Marine Air Ground Task Force. In the U.S. Marine Corps there are three Marine Expeditionary Forces.
In the U.S. Army, the level above Division is called a Corps instead of an Expeditionary Force. It is commanded by a Lieutenant General. In many armies, a Corps numbers around 60,000, usually divided into three divisions.
During World War II, due to the large scale of combat, multiple Corps were combined into Armies commanded by a General (four stars) and comprising as many as 240,000 troops. These were in their turn formed into Army Groups, these being the largest field organization handled by a single commander in modern warfare. Army Groups included between 400,000 and 1,500,000 troops.
These examples illustrate a standard that holds true all over the world and throughout history: rank generally implies size of command in a nested system of ranks and commands. But the specific size of a command for any given rank will depend on the task the unit performs, the nature of weapons used, and the strategies of warfare.

References

1. Rosignoli, Guido (1984). ''World Army Badges and Insignia Since 1939''. Dorset: Blandford Press.

★ Debra Hamel 1998, ''Athenian generals : Military authority in the classical period''. Leiden.

★ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1996: strategoi.

★ Warry, John Gibson (1980) ''Warfare in the classical world: an illustrated encyclopedia of weapons, warriors, and warfare in the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome''. New York, St. Martin's Press.

External links

★ United States Military Rank Insignia, Background, & Description

★ Glossary of Ancient Greek Military Terms

★ Military ranks of the world

★ PDF rank and insignia chart of the modern Norwegian army, navy, and air force.

★ Military rank

★ US Military ranks and rank insignia

★ Articles about armed forces and police ranks

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