The 'military history of South Africa' chronicles a vast time period and complex events from the dawn of history until the present time. It covers
civil wars and
wars of aggression and of
self-defense both within
South Africa and against it. It includes the history of battles fought in the territories of modern
South Africa in neigbouring territories, in both
world wars and in modern international conflicts.
Khoikhoi-Dutch Wars
Main articles: Khoikhoi-Dutch Wars ,
History of Cape Colony
The arrival of the permanent settlements of the Dutch at the
Cape of Good Hope in
1652 brought them face to face with the local people, such as the
Khoikhoi (called
Hottentots by the Dutch), the
Khoisan,
Bushmen and some
Bantu peoples of South Africa. While the Dutch traded with the Khoikhoi, nevertheless serious disputes broke out over land ownership and livestock. This resulted in attacks and counter-attacks by both sides which were known as the
Khoikhoi-Dutch Wars. The First Khoikhoi-Dutch War took place in
1659, the second in
1673, the third 1674 - 1677
[1].
Anglo-Dutch rivalry
Main articles: Battle of Muizenberg ,
Battle of Blaauwberg
Castle of Good Hope
During
1664, tensions between
Britain and the Netherlands rose with rumours of war being imminent — that same year, Commander
Zacharius Wagenaer was instructed to build a pentagonal castle out of
stone. On
26 April 1679, the five bastions were built. The
Castle of Good Hope is a
fortification which was built on the original coastline of
Table Bay and now, because of
land reclamation, seems nearer the centre of
Cape Town,
South Africa. Built by the
VOC between
1666 and
1679, the Castle is the oldest building in South Africa. The Castle acted as local headquarters for the
South African Army in the
Western Cape, but today houses the Castle Military Museum and ceremonial facilities for the
traditional Cape Regiments.
[2]
Battle of Muizenberg
The
Battle of Muizenberg was a small but significant
battle for the future destiny of South Africa which took place at
Muizenberg (near
Cape Town),
South Africa in
1795; it led to the capture of the
Cape Colony by the
United Kingdom. A fleet of seven
Royal Navy ships - five third-rates,
''Monarch'' (74),
''Victorious'' (74),
''Arrogant'' (74),
''America'' (64) and
''Stately'' (64), with the 16-gun sloops
''Echo'' and
''Rattlesnake'' - under
Vice-Admiral Elphinstone anchored in
Simon's Bay at the
Cape of Good Hope in June 1795, having left England on March 1st. Their commander suggested to the Dutch governor that he place the
Cape Colony under the protection of the British monarch - in effect, that he hand the colony over to Britain - which was refused;
Simon's Town was occupied on June 14th by a force of 350
Royal Marines and 450 men of the
78th Highlanders, before the defenders could burn the town. Following skirmishes on the 1st and 2nd of September, a final general attempt to recapture the camp was prepared by the Dutch for the 3rd, but at this point the British reinforcements arrived and the Dutch withdrew. A British advance on Cape Town, with the new reinforcements, began on the 14th; on the 16th, the colony capitulated.
[3]
[4]
[5]
The British assumed control of the
Cape of Good Hope for the next seven years. The Cape was returned to the restored Dutch government (known as the
Batavian Government) in
1804. In
1806 the British returned and after again defeating the Dutch at the
Battle of Blaauwberg, stayed in control for more than 100 years.
Cape frontier wars
The
Xhosa Wars, also know as the Kaffir Wars or Cape Frontier Wars, were a series of nine wars between the
Xhosa people and
European settlers from
1779 and
1879 in what is now the
Eastern Cape in South Africa. The wars were responsible for the Xhosa people's loss of most of their land, and the incoropration of its people into European-controlled territories.
[6]
Zulu-Ndwandwe civil war
The
Zulu Civil War or
Ndwandwe-Zulu War of
1817–
1819 was a war fought between the expanding
Zulu kingdom and the
Ndwandwe tribe in
South Africa. Shaka revolutionized traditional ways of fighting by introducing the
assegai, a spear with a short shaft and broad blade, used as a close-quarters stabbing weapon. (Under Shaka's rule, losing an assegai was punishable by death. So it was never thrown like a
javelin.) He also organized warriors into disciplined units known as ''
Impis'' that fought in close formation behind large cowhide shields. In the
Battle of Gqokli Hill in
1819, his troops and tactics prevailed over the superior numbers of the Ndwandwe people, who failed to destroy the Zulu in their first encounter.
[7]
The Ndwandwe and the Zulus met again in combat at the
Battle of Mhlatuze River in
1820. The Zulu tactics again prevailed, pressing their attack when the Ndwandwe army was divided during the crossing of the
Mhlatuze River. Zulu warriors arrived at the Ndwande King
Zwide's headquarters near present-day
Nongoma before news of the defeat, and approached the camp singing Ndwandwe victory songs to gain entry. Zwide was killed, and most of the
Ndwandwe abandoned their lands and migrated north and eastward. This was the start of the
Mfecane, a catastrophic, bloody migration of many different tribes in the area, initially escaping the Zulus, but themselves causing their own havoc after adopting Zulu tactics in war. Shaka was the ultimate victor, and his (more peaceful) descendants still live today throughout
Zululand, with customs and a way of life that can be easily traced to
Shaka's day.
Mfecane
Main articles: Mfecane
Mfecane (
Zulu), also known as the Difaqane or Lifaqane (
Sesotho), is an
African expression which means something like "the crushing" or "scattering". It describes a period of widespread chaos and disturbance in
southern Africa during the period between
1815 and about
1835.
[8]
The Mfecane resulted from the rise to power of
Shaka, the
Zulu king and military leader who conquered the
Nguni peoples between the Tugela and Pongola rivers in the beginning of the nineteenth century, and created a
militaristic kingdom in the region. The Mfecane also led to the formation and consolidation of other groups — such as the
Matabele, the
Mfengu and the
Makololo — and the creation of states such as the modern
Lesotho.
[9]
Battles between Voortrekkers and Zulus
Main articles: Battle of Italeni ,
Battle of Blood River
The
Battle of Italeni in what is now
KwaZulu Natal,
South Africa, in early 1838, between the
Voortrekkers and the
Zulus during the period of the
Great Trek, resulted in the Zulu armies repulsing the Voortrekkers. On 9 April, near the Babanango Mountain Range a large Zulu
impi (army) appeared, about to 8,000 warriors. The Voortrekker commandos returned to their camp on 12 April. Boer general
Piet Uys formed a raiding party of fifteen volunteers (including his son,
Dirkie Uys.) During subsequent fighting Uys, his son, the Malan brothers as well as five of the volunteers were killed, and the Voortrekkers were forced to retreat. It has been speculated that, without the lessons learnt as a result of the Battle of Italeni - such as fighting from the shelter of
ox-wagons whenever possible and choosing the place of battle rather than being enticed into unfavourable terrain - the Voortrekkers would not have succeeded in finally beating the Zulus at the
Battle of Blood River eight months later.
[10]
The
Battle of Blood River (
Afrikaans: ''Slag van Bloedrivier'') was fought on
16 December 1838 on the banks of the Blood River (''Bloedrivier'') in what is today
KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa. A group of about 470
Voortrekkers, led by
Andries Pretorius, defended a ''
laager'' (circle of ox wagons) against
Zulu impis, ruled by
King Dingane and led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and
Ndlela kaSompisi, numbering between 10 and 20 thousand. The Zulus repeatedly and unsuccessfully attacked the ''laager'', until Pretorius ordered a group of horse riders to leave the encampment and engage the Zulus. Partly due to the fact that the Voortrekkers used rifles and at least one light cannon against the Zulus' spears, as well as the good location and motivation of the Voortrekkers, only three Voortrekkers were wounded and none perished; that contrasted against the more than 3,000 Zulu warriors who died.
[11]
The Anglo-Zulu War
The
Anglo-Zulu War was fought in
1879 between
Britain and the
Zulus, and signalled the end of the Zulus as an independent nation. It had complex beginnings, some bad decisions and bloody battles that caused the British to engage earlier than they intended, but played out a common story of
colonialism.
At the
Battle of Isandlwana, a
Zulu army wiped out a
British force on
January 22,
1879. 1,400 British soldiers were totally overwhelmed and killed. The Zulus took no prisoners. This battle is considered to be one of the greatest disasters in British colonial history. However, Isandlwana was a
Pyrrhic victory for the Zulus not only because of the heavy casualties suffered in the battle but also because, as King
Cetshwayo feared, it forced the policy makers in London to rally to the support of the pro-war contingent in the Natal government and commit whatever resources were needed to defeat the Zulu.
At
Rorke's Drift (
January 22 –
January 23,
1879) 139 British soldiers successfully defended their garrison against an intense assault by four to five thousand
Zulu warriors. The
Battle of Intombe was fought on
March 12,
1879, between British and Zulu forces. The
Siege of Eshowe took place during a three-pronged attack on the Zulu Impis of king
Cetshwayo at
Ulundi. The
Battle of Gingindlovu (uMgungundlovu) was fought between a British relief column sent to break the
Siege of Eshowe and a Zulu
Impi of king
Cetshwayo on
2 April 1879. The battle restored the British commanders' confidence in their army and their ability to defeat Zulu attacks. With the last resistance removed, they were able to advance forward and
relieve Eshowe. The
Battle of Hlobane was a total disaster for the British. 15 officers and 110 men were killed, a further 8 wounded and 100 native soldiers died. The
Battle of Kambula took place in 1879 when a Zulu army attacked the British camp at
Kambula, resulting in a massive Zulu defeat. It is considered to be the turning point of the Anglo-Zulu War. The
Battle of Ulundi took place at the Zulu capital of
Ulundi on
July 4,
1879 and proved to be the decisive battle that finally broke the military power of the
Zulu nation.
First Anglo-Boer War
Afrikaner Commandos during the Second Boer War, note the German
Mauser rifles they are holding.
The
First Boer War also known as the First Anglo-Boer War or the
Transvaal War, was fought from
December 16,
1880 until
March 23,
1881. It was the first clash between the British and the Transvaal
Boers. It was precipitated by Sir
Theophilus Shepstone who
annexed the
South African Republic (Transvaal Republic) for the British in
1877. The British consolidated their power over most of the colonies of South Africa in
1879 after the
Anglo-Zulu War. The Boers protested and in December 1880 they
revolted.
After several battles, the British were unwilling to get further involved in a war which was already seen as lost, the British government of
William Gladstone signed a
truce on
March 6, and in the final
peace treaty on
March 23 1881, they gave the Boers self-government in the Transvaal under a theoretical British oversight.
The Jameson Raid
Main articles: Jameson Raid
The
Jameson Raid (
December 29,
1895 -
January 2,
1896) was a raid on Paul Kruger's
Transvaal Republic carried out by
Leander Starr Jameson and his Rhodesian and Bechuanaland policemen over the New Year weekend of 1895-96. It was intended to trigger an uprising by the primarily British expatriate workers (known as
Uitlanders) in the
Transvaal but failed to do so. The raid was ineffective and no uprising took place, but it did much to bring about the
Second Boer War and the
Second Matabele War.
Growing impatient, Jameson launched the Jameson Raid in October of 1895, and managed to push within twenty miles of
Johannesburg before superior Boer forces compelled him and his men to surrender.
The affair brought Anglo-Boer relations to a dangerous low and the ill feeling was further heated by the "
Kruger telegram" from the
German Emperor,
Kaiser Wilhelm II. It congratulated
Paul Kruger on defeating the raid, and also appeared to recognise the Boer republic and offer support. The emperor was already perceived as anti-British, and a naval arms race had started between Germany and
Britain. Consequently, the telegram alarmed and angered the British.
Second Anglo-Boer War
The
Second Boer War, also known as the Anglo-Boer War,
11 October 1899 -
31 May 1902 was the first major international conflict of the twentieth century. The war was fought between the
British Empire and the two independent
Boer republics of the
Orange Free State and the
South African Republic (Transvaal Republic). After a protracted hard-fought war, the two independent republics lost and were absorbed into the British Empire.
In all, the war had cost around 75,000 lives — 22,000 British soldiers (7,792 battle casualties, the rest through disease), 6,000-7,000
Boer Commandos, 20,000-28,000 Boer civilians and perhaps 20,000 black Africans. The last of the Boers surrendered in May 1902 and the war ended with the
Treaty of Vereeniging in the same month. But the Boers were given £3,000,000 for reconstruction and were promised eventual self-government, and the
Union of South Africa was established in 1910. The treaty ended the existence of the Transvaal and the
Orange Free State as Boer republics and placed them within the
British Empire.
The Boers referred to the two wars as the ''Freedom Wars''. Those Boers who wanted to continue the fight were known as "''bitter-einders''" (or ''irreconcilables'') and at the end of the war a number like
Deneys Reitz chose exile rather than sign an undertaking that they would abide by the peace terms. Over the following decade, many returned to South Africa and never signed the undertaking. Some, like Reitz, eventually reconciled themselves to the new ''status quo'', but others waited for a suitable opportunity to restart the old quarrel. At the start of
World War I the bitter-einders and their allies took part in a revolt known as the
Maritz Rebellion.
World War I
Main articles: South African Overseas Expeditionary Force
Bonds with the British Empire
The Union of South Africa tied closely to the
British Empire, automatically joined Great Britain and the allies against the
German Empire. Both Prime Minister
Louis Botha and Defence Minister
Jan Smuts, both former
Second Boer War generals who had fought against the British then, but who now became active and respected members of the
Imperial War Cabinet. (See
Jan Smuts during World War I.)
South Africa was part of significant military operations against Germany. In spite of Boer resistance at home, the Afrikaner-led government of
Louis Botha unhestitatingly joined the side of the
Allies of World War I and fought alongside its armies. The South African Government agreed to the withdrawal of British Army units so that they were free to join the European war, and laid plans to invade
German South-West Africa. Elements of the South African army refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the Government rose in open revolt. The government declared martial law on
14 October 1914, and forces loyal to the government under the command of General Louis Botha and Jan Smuts proceeded to destroy the
Maritz Rebellion. The leading Boer rebels got off lightly with terms of imprisonment of six and seven years and heavy fines. (See
World War I and the Maritz Rebellion.)
Military action against Germany during World War I
The South African ''Union Defence Force'' saw action in a number areas:
#It dispatched its army to
German South-West Africa, later known as
South West Africa, and now known as
Namibia. The South Africans expelled German forces and gained control of the former German colony. (See
German South-West Africa in World War I.)
#A military expedition under General
Jan Smuts was dispatched to
German East Africa (later known as
Tanganyika) and now known as
Tanzania. The objective was to fight German forces in that colony and to try to capture the elusive German General
von Lettow-Vorbeck. Ultimately, Lettow-Vorbeck fought his tiny force out of German East Africa into
Mozambique then
Northern Rhodesia, where he accepted a cease-fire three days after the end of the war (see
East African Campaign (World War I)).
#''1st South African Brigade'' troops were shipped to
France to fight on the
Western Front. The most costly battle that the South African forces on the Western Front fought in was the
Battle of Delville Wood in
1916. (See
South African Army in World War I.)
#South Africans also saw action with the
Cape Corps as part of the
Egyptian Expeditionary Force in
Palestine. (See
Cape Corps 1915 - 1991)
Military contributions and casualties in World War I
More than 146,000 whites, 83,000 blacks and 2,500 people of mixed race ("
Coloureds") and
Asians served in
South African military units during the war, including 43,000 in German South-West Africa and 30,000 on the Western Front. An estimated 3,000 South Africans also joined the
Royal Flying Corps. The total South African casualties during the war was about 18,600 with over 12,452 killed - more than 4,600 in the European theater alone.
The Commonwealth War Graves commission has records of 9457 known South African War dead during World War I. http://www.cwgc.org/
There is no question that South Africa greatly assisted the Allies, and Great Britain in particular, in capturing the two German colonies of German-West-Africa and German-East-Africa as well as in battles in Western Europe and the Middle East. South Africa's ports and harbors, such as at
Cape Town,
Durban, and
Simon's Town, were also important rest-stops, refueling-stations, and served as strategic assets to the British
Royal Navy during the war, helping to keep the vital
sea lanes to the
British Raj open.
World War II
Political choices at outbreak of war
On the eve of World War II the Union of South Africa found itself in a unique political and military quandary. While it was closely allied with Great Britain, being a co-equal
Dominion under the
1931 Statute of Westminster with its head of state being the British king, the South African Prime Minister on September 1, 1939 was none other than
Barry Hertzog the leader of the pro-Afrikaner anti-British
National party that had joined in a unity government as the
United Party.
Herzog's problem was that South Africa was constitutionally obligated to support Great Britain against
Nazi Germany. The
Polish-British Common Defence Pact obligated Britain, and in turn its dominions, to help Poland if attacked by the Nazis. After Hitler's forces attacked Poland on the night of August 31, 1939, Britain declared war on Germany within a few days. A short but furious debate unfolded in South Africa, especially in the halls of power in the
Parliament of South Africa, that pitted those who sought to enter the war on Britain's side, led by the pro-
Allied pro-British Afrikaner and former Prime Minister
Jan Smuts and General ''against'' then-current Prime Minister Barry Hertzog who wished to keep South Africa "neutral", if not pro-
Axis.
Declaration of war against the Axis
On September 4,
1939, the United Party caucus refused to accept Hertzog's stance of neutrality in
World War II and deposed him in favor of Smuts. Upon becoming Prime Minister of South Africa, Smuts declared South Africa officially at war with Germany and the Axis. Smuts immediately set about fortifying South Africa against any possible German sea invasion because of South Africa's global strategic importance controlling the long sea route around the
Cape of Good Hope.
Smuts took severe action against the pro-Nazi South African
Ossewabrandwag movement (they were caught committing acts of sabotage) and jailed its leaders for the duration of the war. (One of them,
John Vorster, was to become future Prime Minister of South Africa.) (See
Jan Smuts during World War II.)
Prime Minister and Field Marshal Smuts
Prime Minister
Jan Smuts was the only important non-British general whose advice was constantly sought by Britain's war-time Prime Minister
Winston Churchill. Smuts was invited to the
Imperial War Cabinet in
1939 as the most senior South African in favour of war. In
28 May 1941, Smuts was appointed a
Field Marshal of the
British Army, becoming the first South African to hold that rank. Ultimately, Smuts would pay a steep political price for his closeness to the British establishment, to the King, and to Churchill which had made Smuts very unpopular among the conservative nationalistic
Afrikaners, leading to his eventual downfall, whereas most
English-speaking whites and a minority of liberal Afrikaners in South Africa remained loyal to him. (See
Jan Smuts during World War II.)
Military contributions and casualties in World War II
South Africa and its military forces contributed in many theaters of war. South Africa's contribution consisted mainly of supplying troops, men and material for the
North African campaign (the Desert War) and the
Italian Campaign as well as to Allied ships that docked at its crucial ports adjoining the
Atlantic Ocean and
Indian Ocean that converge at the tip of
Southern Africa. Numerous volunteers also flew for the
Royal Air Force. (See:
South African Army in World War II;
South African Air Force in World War II;
South African Navy in World War II.)
#The South African Army and
Air Force played a major role in defeating the Italian forces of
Benito Mussolini during the 1940/1941
East African Campaign. The converted
Junkers Ju 86s of 12 Squadron, South African Air Force, carried out the first bombing raid of the campaign at 8am on
12 June 1940, mere hours after Italy's declaration of war.
#Another important victory that the South Africans participated in was the liberation of
Malagasy (now known as
Madagascar) from the control of the
Vichy French who were allies of the Nazis. British troops aided by South African soldiers, staged their attack from South Africa, occupied the strategic island in
1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese.
#The
South African 1st Infantry Division took part in several actions in North Africa in
1941 and
1942, including the
Battle of El Alamein, before being withdrawn to South Africa.
#The
South African 2nd Infantry Division also took part in a number of actions in North Africa during 1942, but on
21 June 1942 two complete infantry brigades of the division as well as most of the supporting units were captured at the fall of
Tobruk.
#The
South African 3rd Infantry Division never took an active part in any battles but instead organised and trained the South African home defence forces, performed garrison duties and supplied replacements for the South African 1st Infantry Division and the South African 2nd Infantry Division. However, one of this division's constituent brigades - ''7 SA Motorised Brigade'' - did take part in the invasion of
Madagascar in 1942.
#The
South African 6th Armoured Division fought in numerous actions in
Italy from
1944 to
1945.
#Numerous South African airmen also volunteered serivce to the RAF, some serving with distinction.
#South Africa contributed to the war effort against Japan, supplying men and manning ships in naval engagements against the Japanese.
[12]
Of the
334,000 men volunteered for full time service in the South African Army during the war (including some 211,000 whites, 77,000 blacks and 46,000 "coloureds" and Asians), nearly 9,000 were killed in action.
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission has records of 11,023 known South African war dead during World War II.
[13]
Korean War
In the
Korean War, the famous
2 Squadron ("The Flying Cheetahs") took part as South Africa's contribution. It won many American decorations, including the unusual honour of a
United States Presidential Unit Citation in 1952:
:''2 Sqn had a long and distinguished record of service in Korea flying F-51D Mustangs and later F-86F Sabres. Their role was mainly flying ground attack and interdiction missions as one of the squadrons making up the USAF's 18th Fighter Bomber Wing.''
:''During the Korean conflict the squadron flew a grand total of 12 067 sorties for a loss of 34 pilots and two other ranks. Aircraft losses amounted to 74 out of 97 Mustangs and four out of 22 Sabres. Pilots and men of the squadron received a total of 797 medals including 2 Silver Stars - the highest award to non-American nationals - 3 Legions of Merit, 55 Distinguished Flying Crosses and 40 Bronze Stars. 8 pilots became POW's. Casualties: 20 KIA 16 WIA.''
[14]
Simonstown Agreement
The 'Simonstown Agreement' was a
naval cooperation agreement between the
United Kingdom and
South Africa signed
June 30,
1955. Under the agreement, the
Royal Navy gave up its naval base at
Simonstown, South Africa, and transferred command of the
South African Navy to the government of South Africa. In return, South Africa promised the use of the Simonstown base to Royal Navy ships.
South Africa and the Arab-Israeli conflict
Main articles: Israel-South Africa relations
U.S. Intelligence believed that Israel participated in South African nuclear research projects and supplied advanced non-nuclear weapons technology to South Africa during the 1970s, while South Africa was
developing its own atomic bombs.
[15][16]
According to
David Albright of the
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, "Faced with sanctions, South Africa began to organize clandestine procurement networks in Europe and the United States, and it began a long, secret collaboration with Israel." although he goes on to say "A common question is whether Israel provided South Africa with weapons design assistance, although available evidence argues against significant cooperation."
[17] According to the
Nuclear Threat Initiative, in 1977 Israel traded 30 grams of
tritium in exchange for 50 tons of South African
uranium and in the mid-80s assisted with the development of the
RSA-3 ballistic missile.
Also in 1977, according to foreign press reports, it was suspected that South Africa signed a pact with Israel that included the transfer of military technology and the manufacture of at least six atom bombs.
has claimed that "Israel provided expertise and technology that was central to South Africa's development of its nuclear bombs".
In 2000,
Dieter Gerhardt,
Soviet spy and former commander in the South African Navy, claimed that Israel agreed in 1974 to arm eight
Jericho II missiles with "special warheads" for South Africa.
[18]
South African undercover activity abroad
★ On
October 4,
1966, the Kingdom of Lesotho attained full independence, governed by a
constitutional monarchy. In
1973, an appointed Interim National Assembly was established. With an overwhelming progovernment majority, it was largely the instrument of the BNP, led by Prime Minister Jonathan. South Africa had virtually closed the country's land borders because of Lesotho support of cross-border operations of the
African National Congress (ANC). Moreover, South Africa publicly threatened to pursue more direct action against Lesotho if the Jonathan government did not root out the ANC presence in the country. This internal and external opposition to the government combined to produce violence and internal disorder in Lesotho that eventually led to a military takeover in 1986.
★ In
1981, the
Seychelles experienced a failed
coup attempt by
Mike Hoare and a team of mercenaries. An international commission, appointed by the
UN Security Council in
1982, concluded that
South African defence agencies had been involved in the attempted takeover, including supplying weapons and ammunition. See
History of Seychelles.
South Africa and weapons of mass destruction
Main articles: South Africa and weapons of mass destruction ,
Vela Incident
During the 1980s, South Africa pursued research into
nuclear,
biological, and
chemical weapons. Six crude nuclear weapons were assembled. With the anticipated changeover to a majority-elected government in the 1990s, the South African government dismantled all of its nuclear weapons, the only nation in the world to date which voluntarily gave up nuclear arms it had developed itself. The country has been a signatory of the
Biological Weapons Convention since 1975, the
Chemical Weapons Convention since 1995, and the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty since 1991.
The
Vela Incident (sometimes known as the South Atlantic Flash) was the possible detection of a
nuclear weapon test. This detection was made by a
United States Vela satellite on
September 22,
1979. Much of the information about the event is still
classified. The Vela 6911 satellite apparently detected the characteristic double flash of an atmospheric nuclear explosion (first a very fast and very bright flash, and then a less bright and longer-lasting flash) of some two to three
kilotons at near to the
Prince Edward Islands, a South African dependency lying in the
Indian Ocean.
The two primary suspects for the sources of an unexplained nuclear blast were
Israel and
South Africa, both of which had covert nuclear weapons programs at the time. A test by either Israel or South Africa would have been very awkward for the Carter administration. Israel was a close American ally, while the South African relationship was close but unpopular due to
apartheid. Carter had worked hard on
nonproliferation issues, and a vigorous response would have been required if it had been proven that either nation had conducted the test. This would have disrupted the negotiations underway over the
Camp David Accords.
If a nuclear explosion did occur, it is uncertain who triggered it. There are difficulties with both the South African and Israeli hypotheses.
South Africa did have a
nuclear weapons program at the time, and the geographic location of the tests points to their involvement. However, since the fall of
apartheid, South Africa has disclosed most of the information on its
nuclear weapons program, and according to the subsequent
IAEA report, South Africa did not have the capability to construct such a device until November 1979, two months after the incident. American signals intelligence detected an unprecedented security lock-down at South Africa's Walvis Bay facility the week before the event, which led to suspicions that the putative test was staged from there.
Israel almost certainly had
nuclear weapons in 1979, but it is questioned whether they had the capability to mount a covert test thousands of kilometers away. If it had been an Israeli test, it was almost certainly with South African cooperation.
South African Border Wars
The
South African Border War refers to the conflict that took place from
1966 to
1989 in
South-West Africa (now
Namibia) and
Angola between
South Africa and its allied forces (mainly
UNITA) on the one side and the Angolan government,
SWAPO (''South-West Africa People's Organisation'') and their allies (mainly the
Soviet Union and
Cuba) on the other.
★
List of operations of the South African Border War
Production of military equipment by South Africa
Main articles: Armscor (South Africa) ,
Denel
South Africa has produced a variety of significant weapons, vehicles and planes for its own uses as well as for international export. Some have been established weapons produced under license and in other instances South Africa has innovated and manufactured its own weapons and vehicles. The predominant manufacturer of weapons is
Denel.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Armscor produced a great deal of South Africa's armament as South Africa was under
UN sanctions. It was during this time that Armscorp contracted with
Gerald Bull's
Space Research Corporation for advanced 155mm
howitzer designs, which it eventually produced, used, and exported to countries such as
Iraq.
Modern Black resistance movements
Main articles: Umkhonto we Sizwe ,
Azanian People's Liberation Army ,
South African farm attacks
Umkhonto we Sizwe (or MK), translated "Spear of the Nation", was the active military wing of the
African National Congress (ANC) in its fight against the
South African
apartheid regime. MK launched its first guerrilla attacks against government installations on
16 December 1961. It was classified as a
terrorist organisation by the South African government and media, and subsequently banned. MK suspended operations on
1 August 1990 in preparation for the dismantling of apartheid, and was finally integrated into the
South African National Defence Force by
1994.
The
Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) was the military wing of the
Pan Africanist Congress in
South Africa. It was originally called ''Poqo''. In the
1990–
94 period it became known for its attacks on civilians (see
Saint James' Church Massacre and
Heidelberg Tavern Massacre) despite the negotiations progress (see
Convention for a Democratic South Africa). In 1994, APLA was absorbed into the new
South African National Defence Force.
★
History of South Africa in the apartheid era
Modern Afrikaner resistance movements
Main articles: Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging ,
History of South Africa in the apartheid era
The
Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) _ "Afrikaner Resistance Movement"), The AWB was formed in
1970 in a garage in Heidelberg,
Transvaal, a town southeast of
Johannesburg. It is a political and paramilitary group in
South Africa under the leadership of
Eugène Terre'Blanche. They are committed to the restoration of an independent
Afrikaner republic or "''
Boerestaat''" within South Africa, and wished to drive all English-speakers into the sea. In their heyday they received much publicity both in South Africa and abroad as an extremist
white supremacist group.
In
1994, before the advent of majority rule, the AWB gained international notoriety in its attempt to defend the dictatorial government of
Lucas Mangope in the homeland of
Bophuthatswana. The AWB, along with a contingent of about 90
Afrikanervolksfront militiamen entered the capital of
Mmabatho on
March 10 and
March 11. During their entry to the homeland they were all observed indiscriminately shooting civilians and tossing grenades from their vehicles.
In June 2004, Terre'blanche was released from prison. He was sentenced for the attempted murder of security guard, Paul Motshabi, but Terre'blanche only served three years. Terre'blanche claims that while in prison, he re-discovered God and has dropped some of his more violent and
racist policies. He nowadays preaches reconciliation as 'prescribed by God'.
Present military: South African National Defence Force
Main articles: South African National Defence Force
The
South African National Defence Force (SANDF) is the name of the present-day
armed forces of South Africa. The military as it exists today was created in
1994, following South Africa's first post-
apartheid national elections and the adoption of a new constitution. It replaced the
South African Defence Force (SADF), and included personnel and equipment from the SADF and the former
Homelands forces, as well as personnel from the former guerrilla forces of some of the political parties involved in South Africa, such as the
African National Congress's
Umkhonto we Sizwe, the
Pan Africanist Congress's
APLA and the Self-Protection Units of the
Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP).
As of
2004, the integration process was considered complete, with the integrated personnel having been incorporated into a slightly modified structure very similar to that of the SADF, with the latter's structure and equipment for the most part being retained.
The commander of the SANDF is appointed by the
President from one of the armed services. The current commander is General Godfrey Ngwenya. He in turn is accountable to the Minister of Defence, currently
Mosiuoa "Terror" Lekota.
Recent peacekeeping actions on the behalf of the South African military include the
South African intervention in Lesotho in order to restore the democratically-elected government after a coup, as well as extensive contributions to the
United Nations peacekeeping operations in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Burundi. An operation to
Sudan has recently begun and is scheduled to be increased to
Brigade strength.
Issues that face the SANDF include a severe shortage of pilots and naval combat officers, due to the replacement of white officers from the former SADF with appointments from the old liberation forces. The loss of trained personnel and the decommissioning of much needed equipment due to funding issues, high HIV-rates amongst personnel and the fact that SANDF infantry soldiers are some of the oldest in the world, all raise questions regarding the current fighting efficiency of the SANDF. Some of these issues are being addressed with the introduction of the
Military Skills Development (MDC) programme, as well as aggressive recruitment and training by the
Reserve Force Regiments.
Four armed services make up the forces of the SANDF:
★
South African Army
★
South African Air Force
★
South African Navy
★
South African Military Health Service
See also
★
South African Air Force
★
South African Army
★
South African Navy
★
South African Defence Force (1957-1994)
★
South African National Defence Force (1994-present)
★
South African resistance to war
★
South African Police Service
★
Permanent Force
★
List of conflicts in Africa
External links
★
The South African National Museum of Military History
★
The South African Military History Society
Sources
★
''Encarta''
References
1. Chronology of the 1600s at the Cape
2. Castle of Good Hope
3. Colonial Expeditions - East Indies, p. 300
4. Capture of the Cape of Good Hope, p. 301
5. Colonial Expeditions - East Indies, p. 302
6. Summary of the Boer-Xhosa Wars
7. Zulu Civil War.Shaka Zulu.
8. Background to the Mfecane
9. Zulu Rise & Mfecane
10. The Battle of Italeni
11. This Day in History: 16 December 1838
12. South Africa and the War against Japan 1941-1945
13. Commonwealth War Graves Commission
14. South Africa in the Korean War
15. The 22 September 1979 Event
16. RSA Nuclear Weapons Program Unknown author
17. South Africa and the affordable bomb
18. Tracking Nuclear Proliferation
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