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'Mikvah' (or 'mikveh') (; plural: ''mikva'ot'' or ''mikves'') is a specific type of bath designed for the purpose of ritual washing in Judaism. The word "mikvah", as used in the Hebrew Bible, literally means a "collection" - generally, a collection of water.[1]
Several biblical regulations specify that full immersion in water is required to regain ritual purity after ritually impure incidents have occurred. Most forms of impurity can be nullified through immersion in any natural collection of water. Some, such as a Zav, however require "living water,"[2] such as springs or groundwater wells. Living water has the further advantage of being able to purify even while flowing as opposed to rainwater which must be stationary in order to purify. The ''mikvah'' is designed to simplify this requirement, by providing a bathing facility that remains in ritual contact with a natural source of water.
Its main uses nowadays are:
★ by Jewish women to achieve ritual purity after menstruation or childbirth
★ by Jewish men to achieve ritual purity (see details below)
★ as part of a traditional procedure for conversion to Judaism
★ for utensils used for food
In Orthodox Judaism these regulations are generally steadfastly adhered to, and consequently the mikvah is central to an Orthodox Jewish community; the existence of a mikvah is considered so important in Orthodox Judaism, that the community is required to construct a mikvah before building a synagogue, and must go to the extreme of selling Torah scrolls or even a synagogue if necessary, to provide funding for the construction[3]. However, many sects within modern Judaism regard the biblical regulations about ''ritual purity'' as anachronistic to some degree, and consequently do not put much importance on the existence of a mikvah.
Ancient mikvahs dating from before the late first century can be found throughout Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza, as well as in historic communities of the Jewish diaspora. In modern times, mikvahs can be found in most communities in Orthodox Judaism, and Jewish funeral homes may have a mikvah for immersing a body during the purification procedure (''tahara'') before burial.
The traditional rules regarding the construction of a mikvah are based on those specified in classical rabbinical literature. According to these rules, a mikvah must be connected to a natural spring or well of naturally occurring water, and thus can be supplied by rivers and lakes which have natural springs as their source[4]. A cistern filled by the rain is also permitted to act as a mikvah's water supply. Similarly snow, ice and hail are allowed to act as the supply of water to a mikvah, as long as it melts in a certain manner[5]. A river that dries up on a regular basis cannot be used because it is presumably rainwater which cannot purify while flowing. Oceans for the most part have the status of natural springs.
A mikvah must, according to the classical regulations, contain enough water to cover the entire body of an average-sized man; based on a mikvah with the dimensions of 3 cubits long, 1 cubit wide, and 1 cubit deep, the necessary volume of water was ''estimated'' as being 40 ''seah'' of water[6][7]. The exact volume referred to by a ''seah'' is debated, and classical rabbinical literature only specifies that it is enough to fit 144 eggs[8]; most Orthodox Jews use the stringent ruling of the Avrohom Yeshaya Karelitz, according to which one ''seah'' is 14.3 litres, and therefore a mikvah must contain approximately 575 litres[9]. This volume of water could be topped up with water from any source[10], but if there were less than 40 seahs of water in the mikvah, then the addition of 3 or more pints of water from an unnatural source would render the mikvah unfit for use, regardless of whether water from a natural source was then added to make up 40 seahs from a natural source[1]; a mikvah rendered unfit for use in this way would need to be completely drained away and refilled from scratch[1].
There are also classical requirements for the manner in which the water can be stored and transported to the pool; the water must flow naturally to the mikvah from the source, which essentially means that it must be supplied by gravity or a natural pressure gradient, and the water cannot be pumped there by hand or carried. It was also forbidden for the water to pass through any vessel which could hold water within it, (however pipes open to the air at both ends are fine[13]) as a result, tap water could not be used as the primary water source for a mikvah, although it can be used to top the water up to a suitable level[10]. To avoid issues with these rules in large cities, various methods are employed to establish a valid mikvah, and tap water is made to flow over the top of this, and through a conduit into a larger pool.
Most contemporary mikvahs are indoor constructions, involving rain water collected from a cistern, and passed through a duct by gravity into an ordinary bathing pool; the mikvah can be heated, taking into account certain rules, often resulting in an environment not unlike a spa.
Traditionally, the mikvah was used by both men and women to regain ritual purity after various events, according to regulations laid down in the Torah and in classical rabbinical literature. The Torah requires full immersion
★ after Keri[15] - normal emissions of semen, whether from sexual activity, or from nocturnal emission; bathing in a ''mikvah'' due to Keri is known as ''tevilath Ezra'' (“the immersion of Ezra”)
★ after Zav/Zavah[15] - abnormal discharges of bodily fluids
★ after Tzaraath[15] - certain skin condition(s). These are termed ''lepra'' in the Septuagint, and therefore traditionally translated into English as ''leprosy''; this is probably a translation error, as the greek term ''lepra'' mostly refers to psoriasis, and the greek term for ''leprosy'' was ''elephas''/''elephantiasis''.
★ by anyone who came into contact with someone suffering from Zav/Zavah, or into contact with someone still in Niddah (normal menstruation), or who comes into contact with articles that have been used or sat upon by such persons[15][15].
★ by Jewish priests when they are being consecrated[20]
★ by the Jewish high priest on Yom Kippur, after sending away the goat to Azazel, and by the man who leads away the goat[21]
★ by the Jewish priest who performed the Red Heifer ritual[15]
★ after contact with a corpse or grave[15], in addition to having the ashes of the Red Heifer ritual sprinkled upon them
★ after eating meat from an animal that died naturally[15]
Classical rabbinical writers conflated the rules for zavah and niddah. It also became customary for priests to fully immerse themselves before Jewish holidays, and the laity of many communities subsequently adopted this practice. Additionally converts to Judaism are required to undergo full immersion in water.
R' Aryeh Kaplan in Waters of Life connects the laws of impurity to the narrative in the beginning of Genesis. According to Genesis, By eating of the fruit Adam and Eve had brought death into the world. Kaplan points out that most of the laws of impurity relate to some form of death (or in the case of Niddah the loss of a potential life). One who comes into contact with one of the forms of death must than immerse in water which is described in Genesis as flowing out of the Garden of Eden (the source of life) in order to cleanse oneself of this contact with death (and by extension of sin).
Orthodox Judaism generally adheres to the classical regulations, and traditions, and consequently Orthodox Jewesses are obligated to immerse in a mikvah between Niddah and resuming sexual relations with their husbands. However, men are generally not required to immerse after Keri, although a small number of Orthodox communities do adhere to this ritual; among those who adhere to this ritual, it is often carried out in ordinary baths, rather than mikvahs. As a precaution, brides and bridegrooms sometimes immerse in a mikvah before their wedding. In accordance with Orthodox rules concerning modesty, men and women are required to have immerse in separate mikvah facilities in separate locations, or to use the mikvah at different designated times.
Converts to Orthodox Judaism, regardless of gender, are also required to immerse in a mikvah. All men are obliged by Orthodox Judaism to immerse before Yom Kippur[25], and women often do so as well. In the customs of certain Jewish communities, men also use a mikvah before Jewish holidays[25]; the men in certain communities, especially hasidic and haredi groups, also practice immersion before each Shabbat, and some immerse in a mikvah every single day. Although the Temple Mount is treated by many Orthodox Jewish authorites as being forbidden territory, a small number of groups permit access, but require immersion before ascending the Mount as a precaution.
Orthodox Judaism requires that vessels and utensils must be immersed in a mikvah before being used for food, if they had been purchased from a non-Jew.
At the time of writing, Conservative Judaism's position on the use of a mikvah is undergoing change. In the late 1970s, Issac Klein's ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'', a comprehensive guide frequently used within Conservative Judaism, contained chapters on the laws of women's immersion following Niddah. By the early 1990s, the use of a Mikvah in the same circumstances as Orthodox Judaism had largely fallen into disuse, although it continued as part of the rituals for converts; Conservative Judaism does not require immersion during Jewish Holidays (including Yom Kippur), nor does it require immersion after Keri, nor the immersion of utensils purchased from non-Jews. However, in recent years there has been some evidence of a resurgence of interest in the mikveh and its uses in certain Conservative circles. Two recent Conservative responsa concerning homosexuality both reaffirmed that sexual intercourse is prohibited during Niddah, and cannot be resumed without immersion in a mikvah[27][28].
Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished all or almost all general uses of a mikvah, and historically have used one only to perform conversions. In recent years there has been interest in reconstructing the Mikveh and finding contemporary uses for it in addition to the traditional ones. Some Reform rabbis do not use a mikvah to perform conversions, and mikvahs used for reform conversions do not necessarily meet the traditional requirements of mikvahs used in Orthodox and Conservative practice.
The classical requirement for full immersion was traditionally interpreted as requiring water to literally touch every part of the body, and for this reason all clothing, jewellery, and even bandages must be removed; in a contemporary mikvah used by women, there is usually an experienced attendant, commonly called the ''mikvah lady'', to watch the immersion and ensure that the woman has been entirely covered in water.
According to rabbinical tradition, the hair counts as part of the body, and therefore water is required to touch all parts of it, thus meaning that braids cannot be worn during immersion; this has resulted in debate between the different ethnic groups within Judaism, about whether hair combing is necessary before immersion. The Ashkenazi community generally supports the view that hair must he combed straight so that there are no knots, but Black Jews take issue with this stance, particularly when it comes to dreadlocks, and Sephardic Jews generally have wiry curly hair, which is difficult to comb. A number of rabbinical rulings argue in support of dreadlocks, on the basis that
★ dreadlocks can sometimes be loose enough to become thoroughly saturated with water, particularly if the person had first showered
★ combing dreadlocked hair can be painful
★ although a particularly cautious individual would consider a single knotted hair as an obstruction, in most cases hair is loose enough for water to pass through it, unless each hair is individually knottedKolel Menachem, ''Kitzur Dinei Taharah: A Digest of the Niddah Laws Following the Rulings of the Rebbes of Chabad'' (Brooklyn, New York: Kehot Publication Society, 2005).
The word ''mikvah'' rhymes with the verb ''nikvah'', meaning ''wait'', and has allegorically been used to refer to a hope in Yahweh. In the Book of Jeremiah, the word ''mikvah'' is used in this sense, with the mikvah's association with rain and "living water" being given a metaphorical purpose:
:''O Yahweh, the [mikvah] of Israel, all who forsake you will be ashamed ... because they have forsaken Yahweh, the fountain of living water''[15]
:''Are there any of the worthless idols of the nations, that can cause rain? or can the heavens give showers? Is it not you, Yahweh our God, and do we not [nikvah] for you? For you have made all these things''[15].
In the Mishnah, following on from a discussion about Yom Kippur, immersion in a Mikvah is compared by Rabbi Akiva with the relationship between God and Israel. Akiva refers to the description in the Book of Jeremiah of Yahweh as the ''Mikvah of Israel'', and argues that ''just as a mikvah purifies the contaminated, so does the holy one, blessed is he, purify Israel''[31].
A different allegory is used by many Jews adhering to a belief in resurrection as one of the Thirteen Principles of Faith. Since "living water" in a lifeless frozen state (as ice) is still likely to again become living water (after melting), it became customary in traditional Jewish bereavement rituals to read the seventh chapter of the Mikvaot tractate in the Mishnah, following a funeral; the Mikvaot tractate covers the laws of the mikvah, and the seventh chapter starts with a discussion of substances which can be used as valid water sources for a mikvah - snow, hail, frost, ice, salt, and pourable mud.
★ Niddah
★ Ritual washing in Judaism
★ Conversion to Judaism
★ Ablution
1. ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
2. Leviticus 15:13
3. Berlin, ''Meshib Dabar'', 2:45
4. Sifra on Leviticus 11:36
5. Mikvaot 7:1
6. Erubin 4b
7. Yoma 31a
8. Numbers Rabbah, 18:17
9. about 3 Koku, about 116 qafiz, about 126 Imperial Gallons, about 143 Burmese tins, and about 150 U.S. liquid gallons
10. Mikvaot 3
11. ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
12. ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
13. Shulchan Aruch Yoreh Deah 201:36
14. Mikvaot 3
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. ,
21. , ,
22.
23.
24.
25. ''Shulchan Aruch'', Orach Chayim, 581:4 and 606:4
26. ''Shulchan Aruch'', Orach Chayim, 581:4 and 606:4
27. Elliott N. Dorff, Daniel Evans, and Avram Reisner. ''Homosexuality, Human Dignity, and Halakha.'' Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006
28. Joel Roth, Homosexuality Revisited, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006
29.
30.
31. Yoma 85b
★ The Mikvah, by Rivkah Slonim (Chabad.org)
★ Global Mikvah Directory (Mikvah.org]
★ Mayim Rabim website and message boards - The reflections of certain women about mikvah and the Taharat haMishpacha
★ Charlotte Fonrobert, ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'',Stanford University Press, 2000
★ Isaac Klein, ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'', JTS Press, New York, 1992
★ Kolel Menachem, ''Kitzur Dinei Taharah: A Digest of the Niddah Laws Following the Rulings of the Rebbes of Chabad'', Kehot Publication Society, Brooklyn, New York, 2005
Several biblical regulations specify that full immersion in water is required to regain ritual purity after ritually impure incidents have occurred. Most forms of impurity can be nullified through immersion in any natural collection of water. Some, such as a Zav, however require "living water,"[2] such as springs or groundwater wells. Living water has the further advantage of being able to purify even while flowing as opposed to rainwater which must be stationary in order to purify. The ''mikvah'' is designed to simplify this requirement, by providing a bathing facility that remains in ritual contact with a natural source of water.
Its main uses nowadays are:
★ by Jewish women to achieve ritual purity after menstruation or childbirth
★ by Jewish men to achieve ritual purity (see details below)
★ as part of a traditional procedure for conversion to Judaism
★ for utensils used for food
In Orthodox Judaism these regulations are generally steadfastly adhered to, and consequently the mikvah is central to an Orthodox Jewish community; the existence of a mikvah is considered so important in Orthodox Judaism, that the community is required to construct a mikvah before building a synagogue, and must go to the extreme of selling Torah scrolls or even a synagogue if necessary, to provide funding for the construction[3]. However, many sects within modern Judaism regard the biblical regulations about ''ritual purity'' as anachronistic to some degree, and consequently do not put much importance on the existence of a mikvah.
Ancient mikvahs dating from before the late first century can be found throughout Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza, as well as in historic communities of the Jewish diaspora. In modern times, mikvahs can be found in most communities in Orthodox Judaism, and Jewish funeral homes may have a mikvah for immersing a body during the purification procedure (''tahara'') before burial.
Requirements of a mikvah
The traditional rules regarding the construction of a mikvah are based on those specified in classical rabbinical literature. According to these rules, a mikvah must be connected to a natural spring or well of naturally occurring water, and thus can be supplied by rivers and lakes which have natural springs as their source[4]. A cistern filled by the rain is also permitted to act as a mikvah's water supply. Similarly snow, ice and hail are allowed to act as the supply of water to a mikvah, as long as it melts in a certain manner[5]. A river that dries up on a regular basis cannot be used because it is presumably rainwater which cannot purify while flowing. Oceans for the most part have the status of natural springs.
A mikvah must, according to the classical regulations, contain enough water to cover the entire body of an average-sized man; based on a mikvah with the dimensions of 3 cubits long, 1 cubit wide, and 1 cubit deep, the necessary volume of water was ''estimated'' as being 40 ''seah'' of water[6][7]. The exact volume referred to by a ''seah'' is debated, and classical rabbinical literature only specifies that it is enough to fit 144 eggs[8]; most Orthodox Jews use the stringent ruling of the Avrohom Yeshaya Karelitz, according to which one ''seah'' is 14.3 litres, and therefore a mikvah must contain approximately 575 litres[9]. This volume of water could be topped up with water from any source[10], but if there were less than 40 seahs of water in the mikvah, then the addition of 3 or more pints of water from an unnatural source would render the mikvah unfit for use, regardless of whether water from a natural source was then added to make up 40 seahs from a natural source[1]; a mikvah rendered unfit for use in this way would need to be completely drained away and refilled from scratch[1].
There are also classical requirements for the manner in which the water can be stored and transported to the pool; the water must flow naturally to the mikvah from the source, which essentially means that it must be supplied by gravity or a natural pressure gradient, and the water cannot be pumped there by hand or carried. It was also forbidden for the water to pass through any vessel which could hold water within it, (however pipes open to the air at both ends are fine[13]) as a result, tap water could not be used as the primary water source for a mikvah, although it can be used to top the water up to a suitable level[10]. To avoid issues with these rules in large cities, various methods are employed to establish a valid mikvah, and tap water is made to flow over the top of this, and through a conduit into a larger pool.
Most contemporary mikvahs are indoor constructions, involving rain water collected from a cistern, and passed through a duct by gravity into an ordinary bathing pool; the mikvah can be heated, taking into account certain rules, often resulting in an environment not unlike a spa.
Reasons for immersion in a Mikvah
Historic reasons
Pool of a medieval mikvah in Speyer, dating back to 1128 .
First room in the medieval mikvah in Speyer.
Traditionally, the mikvah was used by both men and women to regain ritual purity after various events, according to regulations laid down in the Torah and in classical rabbinical literature. The Torah requires full immersion
★ after Keri[15] - normal emissions of semen, whether from sexual activity, or from nocturnal emission; bathing in a ''mikvah'' due to Keri is known as ''tevilath Ezra'' (“the immersion of Ezra”)
★ after Zav/Zavah[15] - abnormal discharges of bodily fluids
★ after Tzaraath[15] - certain skin condition(s). These are termed ''lepra'' in the Septuagint, and therefore traditionally translated into English as ''leprosy''; this is probably a translation error, as the greek term ''lepra'' mostly refers to psoriasis, and the greek term for ''leprosy'' was ''elephas''/''elephantiasis''.
★ by anyone who came into contact with someone suffering from Zav/Zavah, or into contact with someone still in Niddah (normal menstruation), or who comes into contact with articles that have been used or sat upon by such persons[15][15].
★ by Jewish priests when they are being consecrated[20]
★ by the Jewish high priest on Yom Kippur, after sending away the goat to Azazel, and by the man who leads away the goat[21]
★ by the Jewish priest who performed the Red Heifer ritual[15]
★ after contact with a corpse or grave[15], in addition to having the ashes of the Red Heifer ritual sprinkled upon them
★ after eating meat from an animal that died naturally[15]
Classical rabbinical writers conflated the rules for zavah and niddah. It also became customary for priests to fully immerse themselves before Jewish holidays, and the laity of many communities subsequently adopted this practice. Additionally converts to Judaism are required to undergo full immersion in water.
R' Aryeh Kaplan in Waters of Life connects the laws of impurity to the narrative in the beginning of Genesis. According to Genesis, By eating of the fruit Adam and Eve had brought death into the world. Kaplan points out that most of the laws of impurity relate to some form of death (or in the case of Niddah the loss of a potential life). One who comes into contact with one of the forms of death must than immerse in water which is described in Genesis as flowing out of the Garden of Eden (the source of life) in order to cleanse oneself of this contact with death (and by extension of sin).
In Modern Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism generally adheres to the classical regulations, and traditions, and consequently Orthodox Jewesses are obligated to immerse in a mikvah between Niddah and resuming sexual relations with their husbands. However, men are generally not required to immerse after Keri, although a small number of Orthodox communities do adhere to this ritual; among those who adhere to this ritual, it is often carried out in ordinary baths, rather than mikvahs. As a precaution, brides and bridegrooms sometimes immerse in a mikvah before their wedding. In accordance with Orthodox rules concerning modesty, men and women are required to have immerse in separate mikvah facilities in separate locations, or to use the mikvah at different designated times.
Converts to Orthodox Judaism, regardless of gender, are also required to immerse in a mikvah. All men are obliged by Orthodox Judaism to immerse before Yom Kippur[25], and women often do so as well. In the customs of certain Jewish communities, men also use a mikvah before Jewish holidays[25]; the men in certain communities, especially hasidic and haredi groups, also practice immersion before each Shabbat, and some immerse in a mikvah every single day. Although the Temple Mount is treated by many Orthodox Jewish authorites as being forbidden territory, a small number of groups permit access, but require immersion before ascending the Mount as a precaution.
Orthodox Judaism requires that vessels and utensils must be immersed in a mikvah before being used for food, if they had been purchased from a non-Jew.
Conservative Judaism
At the time of writing, Conservative Judaism's position on the use of a mikvah is undergoing change. In the late 1970s, Issac Klein's ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'', a comprehensive guide frequently used within Conservative Judaism, contained chapters on the laws of women's immersion following Niddah. By the early 1990s, the use of a Mikvah in the same circumstances as Orthodox Judaism had largely fallen into disuse, although it continued as part of the rituals for converts; Conservative Judaism does not require immersion during Jewish Holidays (including Yom Kippur), nor does it require immersion after Keri, nor the immersion of utensils purchased from non-Jews. However, in recent years there has been some evidence of a resurgence of interest in the mikveh and its uses in certain Conservative circles. Two recent Conservative responsa concerning homosexuality both reaffirmed that sexual intercourse is prohibited during Niddah, and cannot be resumed without immersion in a mikvah[27][28].
Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism
Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished all or almost all general uses of a mikvah, and historically have used one only to perform conversions. In recent years there has been interest in reconstructing the Mikveh and finding contemporary uses for it in addition to the traditional ones. Some Reform rabbis do not use a mikvah to perform conversions, and mikvahs used for reform conversions do not necessarily meet the traditional requirements of mikvahs used in Orthodox and Conservative practice.
Requirements during use of a mikvah
A contemporary mikveh at Temple Beth-El in Birmingham, Alabama.
The classical requirement for full immersion was traditionally interpreted as requiring water to literally touch every part of the body, and for this reason all clothing, jewellery, and even bandages must be removed; in a contemporary mikvah used by women, there is usually an experienced attendant, commonly called the ''mikvah lady'', to watch the immersion and ensure that the woman has been entirely covered in water.
According to rabbinical tradition, the hair counts as part of the body, and therefore water is required to touch all parts of it, thus meaning that braids cannot be worn during immersion; this has resulted in debate between the different ethnic groups within Judaism, about whether hair combing is necessary before immersion. The Ashkenazi community generally supports the view that hair must he combed straight so that there are no knots, but Black Jews take issue with this stance, particularly when it comes to dreadlocks, and Sephardic Jews generally have wiry curly hair, which is difficult to comb. A number of rabbinical rulings argue in support of dreadlocks, on the basis that
★ dreadlocks can sometimes be loose enough to become thoroughly saturated with water, particularly if the person had first showered
★ combing dreadlocked hair can be painful
★ although a particularly cautious individual would consider a single knotted hair as an obstruction, in most cases hair is loose enough for water to pass through it, unless each hair is individually knottedKolel Menachem, ''Kitzur Dinei Taharah: A Digest of the Niddah Laws Following the Rulings of the Rebbes of Chabad'' (Brooklyn, New York: Kehot Publication Society, 2005).
Allegorical uses of the term Mikvah
The word ''mikvah'' rhymes with the verb ''nikvah'', meaning ''wait'', and has allegorically been used to refer to a hope in Yahweh. In the Book of Jeremiah, the word ''mikvah'' is used in this sense, with the mikvah's association with rain and "living water" being given a metaphorical purpose:
:''O Yahweh, the [mikvah] of Israel, all who forsake you will be ashamed ... because they have forsaken Yahweh, the fountain of living water''[15]
:''Are there any of the worthless idols of the nations, that can cause rain? or can the heavens give showers? Is it not you, Yahweh our God, and do we not [nikvah] for you? For you have made all these things''[15].
In the Mishnah, following on from a discussion about Yom Kippur, immersion in a Mikvah is compared by Rabbi Akiva with the relationship between God and Israel. Akiva refers to the description in the Book of Jeremiah of Yahweh as the ''Mikvah of Israel'', and argues that ''just as a mikvah purifies the contaminated, so does the holy one, blessed is he, purify Israel''[31].
A different allegory is used by many Jews adhering to a belief in resurrection as one of the Thirteen Principles of Faith. Since "living water" in a lifeless frozen state (as ice) is still likely to again become living water (after melting), it became customary in traditional Jewish bereavement rituals to read the seventh chapter of the Mikvaot tractate in the Mishnah, following a funeral; the Mikvaot tractate covers the laws of the mikvah, and the seventh chapter starts with a discussion of substances which can be used as valid water sources for a mikvah - snow, hail, frost, ice, salt, and pourable mud.
See also
★ Niddah
★ Ritual washing in Judaism
★ Conversion to Judaism
★ Ablution
Footnotes
1. ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
2. Leviticus 15:13
3. Berlin, ''Meshib Dabar'', 2:45
4. Sifra on Leviticus 11:36
5. Mikvaot 7:1
6. Erubin 4b
7. Yoma 31a
8. Numbers Rabbah, 18:17
9. about 3 Koku, about 116 qafiz, about 126 Imperial Gallons, about 143 Burmese tins, and about 150 U.S. liquid gallons
10. Mikvaot 3
11. ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
12. ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
13. Shulchan Aruch Yoreh Deah 201:36
14. Mikvaot 3
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20. ,
21. , ,
22.
23.
24.
25. ''Shulchan Aruch'', Orach Chayim, 581:4 and 606:4
26. ''Shulchan Aruch'', Orach Chayim, 581:4 and 606:4
27. Elliott N. Dorff, Daniel Evans, and Avram Reisner. ''Homosexuality, Human Dignity, and Halakha.'' Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006
28. Joel Roth, Homosexuality Revisited, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006
29.
30.
31. Yoma 85b
External links
★ The Mikvah, by Rivkah Slonim (Chabad.org)
★ Global Mikvah Directory (Mikvah.org]
★ Mayim Rabim website and message boards - The reflections of certain women about mikvah and the Taharat haMishpacha
References
★ Charlotte Fonrobert, ''Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender'',Stanford University Press, 2000
★ Isaac Klein, ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'', JTS Press, New York, 1992
★ Kolel Menachem, ''Kitzur Dinei Taharah: A Digest of the Niddah Laws Following the Rulings of the Rebbes of Chabad'', Kehot Publication Society, Brooklyn, New York, 2005
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