MASCULINITY

During the first half of the twentieth century, men were often associated with images of industrialization

'Masculinity' refers to qualities and behaviors judged by a particular culture to be ideally associated with or especially appropriate to men and boys. Distinct from maleness, which is a biological and physiological classification concerned with the reproductive system, masculinity principally refers to socially acquired traits and secondary sex characteristics. Cicero wrote that "a man's chief quality is courage."^[1] ''Virile'' (from Latin ''vir'', man) is a near-synonym for masculine. The complement of masculinity is ''femininity''.

Characteristics

Culture

Development of masculinity

Pressures associated with masculine gender role

Coping strategies

Risk-taking

Independence and Invincibility

Media encouragement

Alcohol consumption behavior

Positive aspects of the traditional American masculine gender role

Masculine roles

Characteristics

Janet Saltzman Chafetz (1974, 35-36) describes seven areas of masculinity in general culture:
#Physical -- virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
#Functional -- breadwinner, provider for family as much as mate
#Sexual -- sexually aggressive, experienced. Single status acceptable;
#Emotional -- unemotional, stoic, ''boys don't cry'';
#Intellectual -- logical, intellectual, rational, objective, practical,
#Interpersonal -- leader, dominating; disciplinarian; independent, free, individualistic; demanding;
#Other Personal Characteristics -- success-oriented, ambitious, aggressive, proud, egotistical; moral, trustworthy; decisive, competitive, uninhibited, adventurous.

Culture

Direct competition of physical skill and/or strength is a feature of masculinity which appears in some form in virtually every culture on Earth. Here, a U.S. Marine and a member of the U.S. Air Force compete in a wrestling match.

Masculinity has its roots in genetics^[2] Therefore while masculinity looks different in different cultures, there are common aspects to its definition across cultures.^[3] Sometimes gender scholars will use the phrase "hegemonic masculinity" to distinguish the most dominant form of masculinity from other variants. In the mid-twentieth century United States, for example, John Wayne might embody one form of masculinity, while Albert Einstein might be seen as masculine, but not in the same "hegemonic" fashion.
Machismo is a form of masculine culture. It includes assertiveness or standing up for one's rights, responsibility/selflessness, general code of ethics, and sincerity and/or respect.^[4]
In some cultures masculinity may be an indicator of social status as much as wealth, race or social class. In western culture, for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status for males among their peers. Many English words such as ''virtue'' and ''virile'' (all from the Latin ''vir'' meaning ''man'') reflect this. An association with physical and/or moral strength is implied. Masculinity is associated more commonly with men than with boys.

Development of masculinity

Main articles: Masculine psychology, Gender differences, Gender role

There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities. See Gender identity and Gender role for a full discussion of the subject.
In many cultures non-standard characteristics of the "other" gender may become a social problem. Among sexually mature individuals, non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign of homosexuality, while a girl who exhibits masculine behavior is sometimes called a "tomboy". Within sociology such labeling and conditioning is known as peer pressure, and is a part of socialization to better match a culture's mores. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as "machismo" or "testosterone poisoning."
The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, it can also be observed that certain aspects of the masculine identity exist in almost all human cultures.
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology, human ecology and sociobiology. All human cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through literature, costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer, the King Arthur tales in English, the normative commentaries of Confucius or biographical studies of Muhammad. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the ''Bhagavad Gita'' or bushido's ''Hagakure''.

Pressures associated with masculine gender role

Most men feel pressured to act masculine. These men feel that they have to prevail in situations that require physical strength and fitness. To appear weak, emotional, or sexually inefficient is a major threat to their self-esteem. To be content, these men must feel that they are decisive and self-assured, and rational. Masculine gender role stress may develop if a man feels that he has acted 'unmanly'. Conversely, acting 'manly' among peers will often result in increased social validation or general competitive advantage.
In 1987, Eisler and Skidmore did studies on masculinity and created the idea of 'masculine stress'. They found four mechanisms of masculinity that accompany masculine gender role often result in emotional stress. They include:

★ the emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring fitness and strength

★ being perceived as emotional and thereby feminine

★ the need to feel conquering in regard to sexual matters and work

★ the need to repress tender emotions such as showing emotions restricted according to traditional masculine customs

'Two Seated Men'
In many societies, masculinity is understood to include open displays of same-sex non-sexual affection and physical contact. In others, such as the USA in recent times, such behavior is devalued and regarded as effeminate.
Anonymous photo, USA, ca. 1860

Coping strategies

Men and women have different ways that they appraise stressful situations and cope with them. Standards of masculinity cannot only create stress in themselves for some men; they can also limit these men's abilities to relieve stress. Some men appraise situations using the schema of what is an acceptable masculine response rather than what is objectively the best response. As a result men often feel limited to a certain range of "approved" responses and coping strategies.

Risk-taking

Men are significantly more likely than women to drink and drive, not to wear seatbelts, and to drive fast. Men are also more likely to be involved in a homicide. ^[5] The driver fatality rate for young males (24 and under) per vehicle miles driven is approximately three times the driver fatality rate for young women of the same age per vehicle miles driven. In every age category after that, from age 25 to age 65, the driver fatality rate per vehicle miles driven is higher for men than for women.^[6] Men are more likely to be involved in a motor vehicle accident and other accidents generally. And even in the narrow category of young (16-20) driver fatalities with a high blood alcohol content (BAC), a male's risk of dying is higher than a female's risk at the same BAC level.^[6] That is, young women drivers need to be more drunk to have the same risk of dying in a fatal accident as young men drivers. Men are in fact three times more likely to die in all kinds of accidents than women. Men make up 93% of workplace deaths, indicating a greater willingness to perform dangerous work.
Men generally take more risks with their health than women. Men are twice as likely to die from cancer than women are. Men are more likely to not wear sunscreen, to eat unhealthily, and to forgo cardiovascular exercise. Men are historically also more likely to smoke (although now more women start smoking than men.)
The reasons for this willingness to take risks are widely debated. There is evidence to show that this is largely due to genetic predispositions of the male sex, though perhaps greatly exaggerated and supported by social constructs and related pressure. Some cite how widespread and culture-independent certain aspects of masculine identity are, implying that if masculinity was purely learned, different societies in different times would have completely different ideas about the masculine gender role, which has historically remained relatively consistent.
In addition to taking more risks, men appear to be more capable of managing risk and performing under stress than women.

Independence and Invincibility

Men are significantly less likely to visit their physicians to receive preventive health care examinations. Men make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year. In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician. Men should go to annual heart checkups with physicians but many do not, increasing their risk of death from heart disease. In fact, men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness because of their reluctance to go to the doctor. This may also be due to the fact that men tend to not notice symptoms as quickly as women do.
Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, and a dislike of situations out of their control. These are feelings that result from their ideas of masculinity, specifically independence, control, and invulnerability.

Media encouragement

Portrayals of idealized masculine males in the media, like their female counterparts, are controversial for what some see as promoting an unrealistic or unachievable ideal. Here, the Carlson Twins model clothing.

According to Arran Stibbe (2004), men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender role of men in our culture. In exploring magazines, he found that they promote traditional masculinity and claims that, among other things, men's magazines tend to celebrate "male" activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fast cars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing pornography regularly. In men's magazines, several "ideal" images of men are promoted, and that these images may even entail certain health risks.

Alcohol consumption behavior

Research on beer commercials by Strate (Postman, Nystrom, Strate, And Weingartner 1987; Strate 1989, 1990) and by Wenner (1991) show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas of masculinity (especially risk-taking) are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations where a man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance the commercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who are cowboys. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery (over nature or over each other), risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors fishing, camping, playing sports, or hanging out in bars. There is usually an element of danger as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to and emphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed (i.e. fast cars/driving fast). The bar serves as a setting for test of masculinity (skills like pool, strength and drinking ability) and serves as a center for male socializing.
Men drink more alcohol than women, often engaging in risky behavior such as binge drinking.^[8]
According to a study done by Rorabaugh, college men are among the heaviest drinkers in American society. In exchange for taking the risk presented, college men receive acceptance from their peers. Not only is alcohol in itself a risk in these men's lives, but some college rituals and traditions expect men to mix danger while they have consumed alcohol. In American colleges, young men view their manhood as developing in a moment that is socially dominated by alcohol.

Positive aspects of the traditional American masculine gender role

While there are negative aspects of American hegemonic masculinity, According to Levant & Pollack (1995), there are also several positive aspects:

★ Man's willingness to set aside his own needs for the sake of his family

★ His ability to withstand hardship and pain to protect others

★ His tendency to take care of people and solve their problems as if they were his own

★ His way of expressing love by doing things for others

★ His loyalty, dedication and commitment

★ His stick-to-it-ive-ness and will hang in until a situation is corrected

★ His abilities to solve problems, think logically, and rely on himself, take risks, stay calm in the face of danger, and assert himself

Masculine roles

The following roles are frequently associated with masculinity.^[9]^[10]

★ Military/fighter: soldier, warrior, airman, commando, knight, marine, mercenary, samurai, seaman, sailor, viking

★ Other uniformed professions: firefighter, fireman, park ranger, pilot, police officer, SWAT, coastguard, doctor

★ Criminals: assassin, duellist, gun runner, mercenary, mobster, murderer, pirate,

★ Superhero or supervillain

★ Manual laborers: construction worker, dock worker, foreman, lumberjack, mechanic, truck driver

★ Cowboy

★ Pimp

★ Film director

★ Rock musician

★ Athlete: basketball, rugby, rowing, athletics, bodybuilding, football, martial arts, baseball, hockey, wrestling, lacrosse

★ Catholic priest

★ Male nobility: emperor, king, prince, duke, count, earl, baron, lord, shogun

★ National leader in many nations.

★ ''The Alphabet of Manliness'' ★ Butch and Femme ★ Classical definition of effeminacy ★ Femininity ★ Intercultural competence ★ ''Manliness'' – 2006 book by Harvey Mansfield ★ Masculine psychology	★ Men's movement ★ Men's studies ★ Patriarchy ★ Secondary sex characteristics ★ Testosterone poisoning ★ ''Real Men Don't Eat Quiche''	★ Machismo

Footnotes

1. ''Viri autem propria maxime est fortitudo.'' Cicero, ''Tusculanae Quaestiones'', 1:11:18.
2.
Laura Stanton and Brenna Maloney, 'The Perception of Pain', ''Washington Post'', 19 December 2006.
3. Donald Brown, ''Human Universals''
4. Mirande, Alfredo (1997). ''Hombres y Machos: Masculinity and Latino Culture'', p.72-74. ISBN 0-8133-3197-8.
5. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17823965.500-i-had-to-smack-him-one.html retrieved Sept 07
6. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/98.010.PDF
7. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/98.010.PDF
8. Are Women More Vulnerable to Alcohol's Effects?
9. http://mensbiblio.xyonline.net/
10. http://mensbiblio.xyonline.net/

References

★ Levine, Martin P. (1998). ''Gay Macho''. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-4694-2.

★ Stibbe, Arran. (2004). "Health and the Social Construction of Masculinity in Men's Health Magazine." Men and Masculinities; 7 (1) July, pp. 31-51.

★ Strate, Lance "Beer Commercials: A Manual on Masculinity" Men's Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001

External links

'Bibliographic'

★ The Men's Bibliography, a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works.

★ Regional Masculinities Bibliography Project comprehensive guide to worldwide scholarly literature on masculinity

★ Boyhood Studies, features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.
'Other'

★ XYonline, on men and gender issues. Includes over 180 articles on men, gender, masculinity and sexuality, and categorised links to 560 websites.

★ NIMH web pages on men and depression, talks about men and their depression and how to get help.

This article provided by Wikipedia. To edit the contents of this article, click here for original source.

psst.. try this: add to faves

	Sexism, Strength and Dominance: Masculinity in Disney Films
	Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity
	Masculinity defined in 14 seconds
	Masculinity and Femininity
	Masculinity Crisis (1/9) "Tough Guise"

	Hotel Valley Ho (Caf� ZuZu, VH Spa)
	Scottsdale CVB
	Interpro Travel Services Inc.
	traverse jamaica
	Pelican Executive Suites
	Time Out for Touring Inc.
	Travelonly - Dave Corless
	Travelonly - Allan Jenkins
	Heavenly Paradise Getaways
	Temptation Resort Spa Cancun

MASCULINITY

Characteristics

Culture

Development of masculinity

Pressures associated with masculine gender role

Coping strategies

Risk-taking

Independence and Invincibility

Media encouragement

Alcohol consumption behavior

Positive aspects of the traditional American masculine gender role

Masculine roles

See also

Footnotes

References

Further reading

Present situation

History

External links

Photo Galleries »

Customer Service

Most Popular

Useful

Find