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The 'Manusmriti' (Sanskrit मनुस्मृति), translated ''smriti of Manu'' is a work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society. It is also known as the ''.^[1][2] It is one of the nineteen^[3] Dharmasastra, which are part of the Smriti literature. It is considered the oldest and one of the most important texts of this genre.^[4][5] Some of these codes of conduct pertain to the caste system and discuss the stages of life for "twice-born" males (the '' system).^[6][7] It explains itself as a discourse given by Sage Manu to rishis who begged him to enlighten them on the topic. There are 2,684 verses divided into twelve chapters.^[8]

Contents

Dating and historical context

Views and criticism

Notes

References

Dating and historical context

A range of historical opinion generally dates composition of the text any time between 200 BCE and 200 CE.^{[9][10][11][12][13][14]} The dating is significant because the work was written during the period when Brahmanical tradition was seriously threatened by non-Vedic movements.^[15][16] The Manu Smriti and other dharmashastras and the views of society that they represent were Brahmanical responses to those threats.^[17] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.^[18] In Thapar's view,
"The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."^[19]
The ''dharma'' class of texts were also noteworthy because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasized ''dharma'' itself and not its Vedic origins.^[20]

Views and criticism

The work is considered an important source for sociological, political and historical studies. Manusmriti is one of the most heavily criticized of the scriptures of Hinduism, having been attacked by a gamut of people including colonial scholars, Dalit advocates, feminists,^[21] Marxists, and Hindu Nationalists. Some of these groups have burned the text in public demonstrations.^[22]
The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of Indology, Sir William Jones, and the translated version was published in 1794.^[23] British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes, but which were in fact not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements.^[24] According to Avari:

The text was never universally followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came to the world's attention through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of classical Hindu law by Hindu universalists. They are, however, anathema to modern thinkers and particularly feminists.^[25]

Dr. Surendra Kumar, who counts a total of 2,685 verses, claims that only 1,214 are authentic, the other 1,471 being interpolations on the text.^[26].
In reply to criticism of Shudras, verses critical of Shudras and women are proclaimed to be later interpolations, but not later than Adi Shankara (7th-8th century CE). The law in Manu Smriti also is claimed to be overtly positive towards Brahmins (priests) in terms of concessions made in fines and punishments. The stance of Manu Smriti about women is also an issue. While certain verses such as (III - 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify the position of women, other verses (IX - 3, 17) seem to attack the position and freedom women have. The education of women is also an issue. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX - 18) claim that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II - 240), however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX - 94) and (IX - 90).
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar in his book ''"Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India"'' says that Manusmriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism. However, historians, such as Romila Thapar, debunk these claims as gross exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.^[27] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"^[28] Incidentally, it is also noted that Hinduism does not evangelize.^[29][30].
Prominent Hindu figures such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Srila Prabhupada however hold the scripture to be authentic and authoritative, while widely appreciated by figures such as Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti."^[31]
The Hindu sage Paramahansa Yoganada author of the worldwide bestseller Autobiography of a Yogi writes that Manu was a king in the last Golden Age (before 5000BC). He is believed to have formulated the Laws for the coming lower ages.

Notes

1. For alternate name of Manu Smriti as '' see: Flood (1996), p. 53.
2. For alternate name of Manu Smriti as '' see: Hopkins, p. 74.
3. For nineteen Dharmashastras, see: Avari, p. 142.
4. For Manu Smriti as the oldest and most important texts of this genre, see: Flood (1996), p. 56.
5. For Manusmriti and the Yājñyavalkya Smriti as the two most important early Dharma Shastras, see: Hopkins, p. 74.
6. For discussion of the stages of life ('') system and references in Manusmriti, see: Flood (1996), pp. 61-65.
7. For application of the stages of life system ('') to "twice-born" Hindu males belonging to the top three classes (Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, see: Flood (1996), p. 202.
8. For 2,684 verses and twelve chapters, see: Avari, p. 142.
9. For composition between 200 BCE and 200 CE see: Avari, p. 142.
10. For dating of composition "between the second century BCE and third century CE" see: Flood (1996), p. 56.
11. For dating of Manusmriti in "final form" to the second century CE, see: Keay, p. 103.
12. For dating as completed some time between 200 BCE and 100 CE see: Hopkins, p. 74.
13. For probable origination during the second or third centuries AD, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85.
14. For the text as preserved dated to around the 1st century BCE. see:
15. For significance of dating during time of non-Vedic movements, see: Hopkins, p. 74.
16. For Manu Dharmashastra as dating to the period which was opening to trade, new ideas, and social movements, see: Thapar, p. 261.
17. For characterization of the Manu Smriti as a response to a perceived threat, see: Hopkins, pp. 74, 84.
18. For significance of post-empire social uncertainty as a factor in the development of the Code of Manu, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85.
19. Tharpar (2002), p. 279.
20. For the dharmashastras, including Manusmriti, as the starting point for an independent tradition not dependent on Vedic origins, see: Hopkins, p. 74.
21. For objections to the work by feminists, see: Avari, pp. 142-143.
22. For the incident in which Dr. Ambedkar burned the Manusmriti in public on Christmas Day, 1972, see: Avari, p. 142.
23. For Manu Smiriti as as one of the first Sanskrit texts noted by the British and translation by Sir William Jones in 1794, see: Flood (1996), p. 56.
24. For British interest in Dharmashastras due to administrative needs, and their misinterpretation of them as legal codes rather than as social and ritual texts, see: Thapar (2002), pp. 2-3.
25. Avari, p. 142.
26. Vishuddha Manusmriti by Dr. Surendra Kumar, Published by Arsh Sahitya Prachar Trust, Delhi, Fourth Edition (page 5)
27. Romila Thapar, ''Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas,'' Oxford University Press (1960) p. 200.
28. John Marshall, "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi", from ''A Guide to Sanchi,'' citing p. 11. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918). Pp. 7-29 on line, Project South Asia.
29. K. V. Rao, ''Socialism, Secularism, and Democracy in India,'' pp. 28-30.
30. Nagendra K. Singh, ''Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and the Future of Humanity,'' p. 35. Martinus Nijhoff (1986) ISBN 9024733022
31. Friedrich Nietzsche, ''The Will to Power,'' vol. 1.

References

★ India: The Ancient Past, , Burjor, Avari, Routledge, 2007,

★ An Introduction to Hinduism, , Gavin, Flood, Cambridge University Press, 1996,

★ The Hindu Religious Tradition, , Thomas J., Hopkins, Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1971,

★ India: A History, , John, Keay, Grove Press, 2000,

★ A History of India, , Hermann, Kulke, Barnes & Noble, 1986,

★ Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, , Romila, Thapar, University of California Press, 2002,

★ Available online as The Laws of Manu