'Kochi' (;
Malayalam: []); formerly known as 'Cochin') is a city in the
Indian
state of
Kerala. The city is one of the principal
seaports of the country and is located in the district of
Ernakulam, about north of the state capital,
Thiruvananthapuram. It has an estimated population of 600,000, with an
extended metropolitan population of about 1.5 million, making it the largest
urban agglomeration and the second largest city in Kerala after the capital.
Since 1102 CE, Kochi was the seat of the
Kingdom of Cochin, a
princely state which traces its lineage to the
Kulasekhara empire. Heralded as the ''Queen of the
Arabian Sea'', Kochi was an important
spice trading centre on the Arabian Sea coast from the 14th century onwards. Ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as ''Cocym'', ''Cochym'', ''Cochin'', and ''Cochi''. Occupied by the
Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the site of the first
European colonial settlement in India. It remained the capital of
Portuguese India until 1530, when
Goa became the capital. The city was later occupied by the
Dutch, the
Mysore and the
British. Kochi was the first princely state to willingly join the
Indian Union, when India gained
independence in 1947.
Kochi experienced decades of
economic stagnation from independence until 2003, when it entered a period of
economic growth, leading to a spurt in the city's development. A growing centre of
information technology,
tourism and
international trade, Kochi is the commercial hub of Kerala, and one of the fastest growing
second-tier metros in India. Like other large cities in the developing world, Kochi continues to struggle with
urbanisation problems such as
traffic congestion and
environmental degradation.
Successive waves of
migration over the course of several millennia have made Kochi a cultural
melting pot. Despite the risk of
overdevelopment, the city retains its distinct colonial heritage and a blend of tradition and modernity.
Name
Theories regarding the
etymology of the name "Kochi" are disputed.
[3] One suggests that the city's modern name is derived from the
Malayalam word ''koch azhi'', meaning 'small
lagoon'. Another version mentions the name as derivative of the
Sanskrit word ''Go shree'' which means 'prosperous with cows'. Certain ancient texts refer to the city ''Balapuri'' (Sanskrit for 'small town'), which became Cochin in course of time.
[4]
According to some accounts, traders from the court of the
Chinese ruler Khubilai Khan gave Cochin the name of their homeland. Yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word ''Kaci'' meaning 'harbour'. Certain scholars claim that Cochin is derived from the term ''Cocha'', which is a transfiguration of the
Biblical term ''
Cohen''.
Accounts by
Italian explorers
Nicolo Conti (15th century), and
Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called ''Kochchi'', named after the river connecting the
backwaters to the sea.
After the arrival of the
Portuguese, and later the British, the name 'Cochin' stuck as the official appellation. The city
reverted to a closer
anglicisation of its original Malayalam name, 'Kochi', in 1996. However, it is still widely referred to as Cochin.
Cheena vala (Chinese fishing nets); Kochi is the only place outside of
China where these fishing structures are used.
History
Main articles: History of Kochi
Kochi was the centre of Indian
spice trade for many centuries, and was known to the
Yavanas (
Greeks) as well as
Romans,
Jews,
Arabs, and
Chinese since ancient times.
[5] Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port at
Kodungallur (Cranganore) was destroyed by massive flooding of the river
Periyar in 1341.
[6] The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager
Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral
Zheng He's treasure fleet.
[7] There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, who visited Kochi in 1440.
[8]
The
Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in 1102, after the fall of the Kulasekhara empire.
[9] The King of Kochi had authority over the region encompassing the present city of Kochi and adjoining areas. The reign was hereditary, and the family that ruled over Kochi was known as the
Cochin Royal Family (''Perumpadappu Swaroopam'' in the local vernacular). The mainland Kochi remained the capital of the princely state since the 18th century. However, during much of this time, the kingdom was under foreign rule, and the King often only had titular privileges.
Fort Kochi in Kochi was the first European colonial settlement in India. From 1503 to 1663, Fort Kochi was ruled by
Portugal. This Portuguese period was difficult for the
Jews installed in the region, since the
Inquisition was active in Portuguese India. Kochi hosted the grave of
Vasco da Gama, the first European explorer to set sail for India, who was buried at St. Francis Church until his remains were returned to Portugal in 1539.
[10] The Portuguese rule was followed by that of the Dutch, who had allied with the
Zamorins in order to conquer Kochi. By 1773, the Mysore King
Hyder Ali extended his conquest in the
Malabar region to Kochi forcing it to become a tributary of Mysore. The hereditary Prime Ministership of Kochi held by the
Paliath Achans came to an end during this period.
Meanwhile, the Dutch, fearing an outbreak of war on the
United Provinces signed a
treaty with the United Kingdom, under which Kochi was ceded to the United Kingdom in exchange for the island of
Bangka. However, there are evidences of English habitation in the region even prior to the signing of the treaty.
[11]
In 1866, Fort Kochi became a
municipality, and its first Municipal Council election was conducted in 1883. The
Maharaja of Cochin, who ruled under the British, in 1896 initiated local administration by forming town councils in
Mattancherry and
Ernakulam. In 1925, Kochi legislative assembly was constituted due to public pressure on the state.
Towards the early 20th century, trade at the port had increased substantially, and the need to develop the port was greatly felt. Harbour engineer
Robert Bristow was brought to Kochi in 1920 under the direction of
Lord Willingdon, then the Governor of
Madras. In a span of 21 years, he transformed Kochi as one of the safest harbours in the peninsula, where ships berthed alongside the newly reclaimed inner harbour equipped with a long array of steam cranes.
[12][13]
In 1947, India gained independence from the British colonial rule. Cochin was the first
princely state to join the Indian Union willingly.
[14]
In 1949,
Travancore-Cochin state came into being with the merger of Cochin and
Travancore. The King of Travancore was the
Rajpramukh of the Travancore-Cochin Union from 1949 to 1956. Travancore-Cochin, was in turn merged with the
Malabar district of the Madras State. Finally, the
Government of India's
States Reorganisation Act (1956) inaugurated a new state — Kerala — incorporating Travancore-Cochin (excluding the four southern Taluks which were merged with
Tamil Nadu), Malabar District, and the
taluk of
Kasargod,
South Kanara.
[15] On
9 July 1960, the Mattancherry council passed a resolution—which was forwarded to the government—requesting the formation of a
municipal corporation by combining the existing municipalities of Fort Kochi, Mattancherry, and Ernakulam. The government appointed a commission to study the feasibility of the suggested merger. Based on its report, the
Kerala Legislative Assembly approved the corporation's formation. On
1 November 1967, exactly eleven years since the establishment of the state of Kerala, the
corporation of Cochin came into existence. The merger leading to the establishment of the corporation, was between the municipalities of Ernakulam, Mattancherry and Fort Kochi, along with that of the
Willingdon Island, four
panchayats (
Palluruthy,
Vennala,
Vyttila and
Edappally), and the small islands of
Gundu and
Ramanthuruth.
Kochi witnessed economic stagnation in the years following India's independence. The city's economic recovery gathered momentum after
economic reforms in India introduced by the
central government in the mid-1990s. Since 2000, the
service sector has revitalised the city’s stagnant economy. The establishment of several industrial parks based on Information technology (IT) triggered a construction and realty boom in the city. Over the years, Kochi has witnessed rapid commercialisation, and has today grown into the commercial capital of Kerala.
[16]
Geography and climate
Main articles: Geography of Kochi
Kochi is located on the southwest coast of India at , spanning an area of 94.88 ;
square kilometres (36.63
sq mi). The city is situated at the northern end of a peninsula, about 19 kilometres (12
mi) long and less than one mile (1.6 km) wide. To the west lies the Arabian Sea, and to the east are
estuaries drained by perennial rivers originating in the
Western Ghats. Much of Kochi lies at sea level, with a coastline of 48 km.
[17]
The current metropolitan limits of Kochi include the mainland
Ernakulam, old Kochi, the suburbs of
Edapally,
Kalamassery and
Kakkanad to the northeast;
Tripunithura to the south east; and a group of islands closely scattered in the
Vembanad Lake. Most of these islands are very small, varying in extent from six square kilometre to less than a square kilometre (1,500 to less than 250
acres).
Soil consists of
sediments such as
alluvium, teri's, brown
sands etc. Hydromorphic
saline soils are also found in the areas surrounding the backwaters.
[18] Predominant rock types found here are
Archaean-basic
dykes,
Charnockites and
Gneisses. An ecologically sensitive area, the
Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary is located in the central part of the city. It has a wide range of mangrove species and is nesting ground for a vast variety of
migratory birds. Certain species of
dolphins are also present in the backwaters.
Kochi's proximity to the equator along with its coastal location results in little seasonal temperature variation, with moderate to high levels of humidity. Annual temperatures range between 20 to 35 °
C (68–95 °
F) with the record high being 38 °C (100 °F), and record low 17 °C (63 °F).
[19]
From June through September, the
south-west monsoon brings in heavy rains as Kochi lies on the windward side of the Western Ghats. From October to December, Kochi receives light rain from the northwest monsoon, as it lies on the leeward side. Average annual rainfall is 3,500
millimetres (138
in), with an annual average of 132 rainy days.
Civic administration
The city is administered by the
Kochi Corporation, headed by a mayor. For administrative purposes, the city is divided into 70 wards, from which the members of the corporation council are elected for a period of five years. The Corporation has its headquarters in Ernakulam, and zonal offices at
Fort Kochi, Mattancherry, Palluruthy, Edappally,
Vaduthala and Vyttila. The general administration of the city is handled by the Personnel Department and the Council Section. Other departments include that of
town planning, health, engineering, revenue and accounts.
[20] The corporation is also responsible for waste disposal, sewage management and the supply of
potable water, sourced from the Periyar River.
[21] Electricity is provided by the
Kerala State Electricity Board.
The
Greater Cochin Development Authority (GCDA) is the government agency overseeing the development of Kochi. The
Kochi City Police is headed by a
Police Commissioner, an
Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. It comprises the
traffic police,
Narcotics Cell, Armed Reserve Camps, District Crime Records Bureau,
Senior citizen's Cell, and a Women's Cell.
[22] It operates 19 police stations functioning under the Home Ministry of State Government. An
anti-corruption branch of the
Central Bureau of Investigation also operates out of the city. Kochi is the seat of the
High Court of Kerala, the highest judicial body in the state. The High Court also has jurisdicition over the
Union Territory of
Lakshadweep.
Kochi contributes five seats to the State Assembly, and a seat to the
Lok Sabha, the Lower House of the
Indian Parliament.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Kochi
Kochi is the economic capital of Kerala by volume of trade; though, unlike other
South Indian cities, Kochi has been slow to
industrialise.
In recent years the city has rejuvenated from its
economic stagnation and has witnessed heavy investment, thus making it one of the fastest-growing
second-tier metro cities in India.
[24][25] The economy of the city can be classified as a business economy with emphasis on the
service sector.
[26] Major business sectors include gold and textile retailing, seafood and spices exports,
information technology (IT), tourism,
health services, banking, shipbuilding, and the fishing industry. The economy is mostly dependent on trade and retail activities.
[27] As in most of Kerala, remittances from
non-resident Indians (NRI)s is a major source of income.
[28] The city also houses Kerala's only
bourse—the
Cochin Stock Exchange.
Kochi is a major destination for IT and
ITES companies, ranked by
NASSCOM as the second-most attractive city in India for IT-based services.
[29] Availability of cheap
bandwidth through
undersea cables and lower operational costs compared to other major cities in India, has been to its advantage. Various technology and industrial campuses including the government promoted
InfoPark,
Cochin Special Economic Zone and
KINFRA Export Promotion Industrial Park operate in the outskirts of the city. Several new industrial campuses for research, trade and development in
biotechnology,
electronic hardware and information technology are in various stages of construction in the suburbs of the city. Prominent among them are the
Sobha Hi-tech city at Maradu and the
Smart City at Kakkanad, which on completion, would rank among the largest such ventures in the country.
[30][31] The Cochin International Airport is also in the process of setting up an
aerotropolis at Nedumbasserry.
Eloor, situated 17 kilometres (10.5 mi) north of the city, is the largest industrial belt in Kerala, with more than 250 industries manufacturing a range of products including
chemical and
petrochemical products,
pesticides,
rare earth elements,
rubber processing chemicals,
fertilisers,
zinc and
chromium compounds, and
leather products.
The ''Chinese fishing net'' bridge in Kochi
Kochi is the headquarters of the
Southern Naval Command, the primary training centre of the Indian Navy.
[32] The
Cochin Shipyard in Kochi is the largest
shipbuilding facility in India.
[33][34] The Cochin fishing harbour, located at
Thoppumpady is a major fishing port in the state and supplies fish to local and export markets. To further tap the potential of the all-season deep-water harbour at Kochi, an international cruise terminal and several
marinas are being constructed.
[35][36]
Exports and allied activities are also important contributors to the city's economy. The
Cochin Port currently handles export and import of container cargo at its terminal at Willington Island. A new international
container transshipment terminal—the first in the country—is being commissioned at Vallarpadam.
[37] Kochi's historical reliance on trade continues into modern times, as the city is a major exporter of spices and is home to the
International Pepper Exchange, where
black pepper is globally traded. The
Spices Board of India is also headquartered in Kochi.
Kochi also has an
oil refinery—the
Kochi Refineries Limited (KRL) at
Ambalamugal. Central Government establishments like the
Coconut Development Board, the
Coir Board and the
Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) have head offices located in the city.
Transport
Main articles: Transport in Kochi
A
private bus speeding through the streets of Kochi
Public transport in the city is largely dependent on
private buses.
Taxis and
autorickshaws (called ''autos'') are available for hire throughout the day. Narrow roads and the mix of vastly differing types of vehicles have made traffic congestion a major problem in the city. A
metro rapid transit service, intended to considerably ease congestion, is planned for the city.
[38]
Because it is one of the safest harbours in the
Indian Ocean, Kochi ranks among India's major seaports.
[39] The port, administered by a statutory autonomous body known as the
Cochin Port Trust, offers facilities for
bunkering, handling
cargo and
passenger ships and storage accommodation. It also operates passenger ships to
Colombo and Lakshadweep. Boat services operated by
Kerala Shipping and Inland Navigation Corporation, the
State Water Transport Department, and of private ownership are available from various
boat jetties in the city. The ''junkar''
ferry for the transshipment of vehicles and passengers between the islands are operated between Ernakulam and
Vypin, and between Vypin and Fort Kochi. However, with the construction of the
Goshree bridges (which links Kochi's islands), ferry transport has become less essential.
The
Cochin International Airport, which is about 25 kilometres (15 mi) north of the city, handles both domestic and international flights. It is the largest airport of Kerala, and one of the busiest in India. It is the first international airport in India to be built without Central Government funds.
[40] An airport run by the
Navy also operates in the city. A third airport, for use by the
Indian Coast Guard, is under construction in the suburbs.
There is no intra-city rail transport system in Kochi. The inter-city rail transport system in the city is administered by the
Southern Railway division of the
Indian Railways. There are two main railway stations—the
Ernakulam Junction and the
Ernakulam Town (locally known as the 'South' and 'North' railway stations respectively). The railway line connecting these two stations cuts the city longitudinally in two, with two narrow bridges connecting the two halves.
Demographics
As of 2001, Kochi had a population of 596,473, with a density of 6850.7 persons per square kilometre.
[41] Scheduled castes and tribes comprise 14.3% of the city's population. The female-to-male ratio is 1,024:1,000, significantly higher than the all-India average of 933:1,000. Kochi's literacy rate is 94.3%.
The female literacy rate lags that of males by 1.1%, amongst the lowest such gaps in India.
Kochi's major religions are
Hinduism,
Christianity, and
Islam;
Jainism,
Judaism,
Sikhism, and
Buddhism have smaller followings. Though 47% practise Hinduism, Christianity's large following (35%) makes Kochi a city with one of the largest Christian populations in India.
[42]
The majority of residents are
Malayalis; however, there are significant ethnic minority communities including
Tamils,
Gujaratis,
Jews,
Sikkimese,
Anglo-Indians,
Konkanis, and
Tulus. Malayalam is the main language of communication and medium of instruction, although English is more commonly used in business circles.
Hindi and
Tamil are widely understood—albeit rarely spoken.
Like in other large cities of India, Kochi has a growing
slum population. Hundreds of people, mostly comprising migrant labourers who come to the city seeking job prospects, reside in such shabby areas.
Like other fast-growing cities in the developing world, Kochi suffers from major
urbanisation problems, poor
sanitation, and
unemployment. The city registered an increase of 9.7% in its unemployment rate from 14.8% in 1998 to 24.5% in 2003.
[43] Shortage of potable water is a major concern in the city.
[44] The situation is aggravated by the threat posed by
pollution in industrial areas.
[45] The city also has a growing
slum-dwelling population.
[46] Kochi has a high
suicide rate with 32 suicides per
lakh, which is three times higher than the national average of 11.2 per lakh.
[47] According to the
National Crime Records Bureau, Kochi has one of highest rates of crime in India—498.6, against the national average of 287.3.
[48] However, a survey conducted by ''The Week'', found Kochi to be the safest city in India for women.
[49]
Culture
Pedestrians can stroll along the
Marine Drive, a waterfront promenade of Kochi.
As a result of successive waves of migration over the course of several centuries, the population of the city is a mix of people from all parts of Kerala and most of India. The pan-Indian nature is highlighted by the substantial presence of various ethnic communities from different parts of the country.
[50]
Kochi has a diverse, multicultural, and secular community consisting of Hindus,
Christians,
Muslims,
Jains,
Sikhs, and
Buddhists among other denominations, all living in peaceful co-existence. The city once had a large Jewish community, known as the ''Malabar Yehuden''—and now increasingly as
Cochin Jews—that figured prominently in Kochi's business and economic strata.
[51] The
Syro-Malabar Church, one of the 22 ''
sui iuris''
Eastern Catholic Churches, has its seat at Ernakulam. Appropriate to its multi-ethnic composition, Kochi celebrates traditional Kerala festivals like
Onam and
Vishu along with
North Indian Hindu festivals like
Holi and
Diwali with great fervour. Christian and Islamic festivals like
Christmas,
Easter,
Eid ul-Fitr and
Milad-e-sherif are also celebrated. A merry making fest called the ''
Cochin Carnival'' is celebrated at Fort Kochi during the last ten days of December.
Residents of Kochi are known as Kochiites; they are an important part of the
South Indian weltanschauung. However, the city's culture is rapidly evolving, with Kochiites generally becoming more cosmopolitan in their outlook.
The people are also increasingly fashion-conscious, often deviating from the
traditional Kerala wear to western clothing.
[52]
Kochiites generally partake of
Keralite cuisine, which is generally characterised by an abundance of
coconut and spices. Other
South Indian cuisines, as well as
Chinese and
North Indian cuisines are popular.
Fast food culture is also very prominent.
[53]
Kochi was home to some of the most influential figures in
Malayalam literature, including
Changampuzha Krishna Pillai,
Kesari Balakrishna Pillai,
G. Sankara Kurup, and
Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon. Prominent social reformers such as
Sahodaran Ayyappan and
Pandit Karuppan also are from Kochi.
Kochiites are known for their enthusiasm in sports, especially
cricket and
football.
[54]
The
Jawaharlal Nehru International Stadium in Kochi is one of the largest multi-use stadiums in
India.
[55] The
Regional Sports Centre is an important centre of sporting activity in the city.
Education
Schools and colleges in the city are either run by the government or by private trusts and individuals. The schools are each affiliated with either the
Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the
Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the
Kerala State Education Board. English is the medium of instruction in most private schools; though government run schools offer both English and Malayalam. After completing their secondary education, which involves ten years of schooling, students typically enrol at
Higher Secondary School in one of the three streams—
Arts,
Commerce or
Science. Upon completing the required coursework, the student can enroll in general or professional degree programmes.
The
Cochin University is situated in the city. Most of the colleges offering
tertiary education are affiliated either with the
Mahatma Gandhi University or the Cochin University. Other national educational institutes include the
Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training, the
National University of Advanced Legal Studies, the
National Institute of Oceanography and the
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.
Media
Major Malayalam
newspapers published in Kochi include ''
Malayala Manorama'', ''
Mathrubhumi'', ''
Deshabhimani'', ''
Deepika'', ''Kerala Kaumudi'' and ''Veekshanam''. Popular English newspapers include ''
The Hindu'', ''
The New Indian Express'' and ''
The Pioneer''. A number of evening papers are also published from the city.
[56] Newspapers in other regional languages like Hindi,
Kannada, Tamil and
Telugu are also sold in large numbers.
Being the seat of the Cochin Stock Exchange, a number of financial publications are also published in the city. These include ''
The Economic Times'', ''
Business Line'', ''
The Business Standard'' and ''
The Financial Express''.
Prominent magazines and religious publications like the ''
Sathyadeepam'', ''
The Week'' and ''
Vanitha'' are also published from the city.
Television stations in Kochi include
Asianet Cable Vision,
India Vision,
Kairali TV,
Jeevan TV,
Amrita TV,
JaiHind TV and
Manorama News.
Satellite television services are available through
Doordarshan Direct Plus,
Dish TV and
Tata Sky.
All India Radio has two
FM stations in the city, operating at 102.3
MHz and 107.5 MHz. Private satellite radios such as
WorldSpace, are also available. There are over twenty
cinema halls that screen movies in Malayalam, Tamil, English and Hindi. A film festival, known as the
Cochin International Film Festival (CIFF), is held in the city every year.
Kochi has the highest density of telephones in India.
[57] Telephony services are provided by various players like
Airtel,
Idea cellular,
Hutch,
Reliance Infocomm,
Tata Indicom and the state owned
BSNL.
See also
Notes
A picture depicting the city of Kochi (circa.1682)
St.Francis Asissi Cathedral in Kochi
2. United Nations World Urbanization Prospects
3.
Etymology of Kochi
4.
Etymology of Kochi
5.
History of Ernakulam
6.
Emergence of Kochi harbour
7.
The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores, Ma Huan: Ying Yai Sheng Lan — translated by J.V.G. Mills, , , Hakluyt Society, White Lotus Press. ISBN 974-8496-78-3, 1970,
8.
Accounts of Nicolo de' Conti (ca.1395–1469)
9.
Prehistory and Archaeology of Cochin
10.
Death of Vasco Da Gama in Kochi
11.
Kochi Rajyacharithram, KP Padmanabha Menon., , , , 1914,
12.
Cochin Harbour and Willingdon Island
13.
The Cochin Saga
14.
History and culture of Kochi
15.
Lonely Planet South India, Lonely Planet, Plunkett, R, Cannon, T, Davis, P, Greenway, P & Harding, , , ISBN 1-86450-161-8, 2001,
16.
Statistical data
17.
Geography of Kochi
18.
Geology of Kochi
19.
Historical weather for Kochi
20.
Administrative set up
21.
Private firm allowed to draw Periyar water
22.
Organisational chart
23. Kerala's economic setbacks — Is globalisation responsible?
24.
Check out how Kochi is shining!
25. Developing metro and quaint environs
26.
Services sector fuels 9.2 pc growth in Kerala
27.
Retail booooom
28.
Kerala, Gods Own Country - Where Business Blooms
29. Kochi set to scale greater heights in investment
30.
Kerala Cabinet clears Smartcity pact
31.
Sobha to build Rs 5,000cr tech city in Kerala
32. Southern Naval Command
33. In terms of dead weight tons of ships built
34.
List of ship building centres in India
35.
CPT hands over land for marina
36.
37.
Kochi terminal handed over to Dubai Ports International
38.
Kochi Metro Rail
39.
Trade with India — major ports in India
40.
A novel venture in the history of Indian Aviation
41. Census GIS India
42.
Religious data
43.
44.
West Kochi reeling under severe water shortage
45.
Water pollution in Kochi
46.
Housing a dream
47.
All is not well in God's Own Country - Alarming suicide rates
48.
Crime in India-2004, National Crime Records Bureau, , , Ministry of Home Affairs, 2004,
49.
The best cities
50.
Kochi's 'mini-India'
51.
The Jews, Israel, and India
52.
Retail booooom
53.
Fast food overtakes the spice route
54.
Football and Cricket - the Most Popular Games
55.
Stadiums in India
56.
Keeping Kochi updated
57.
InfoPark Kochi
References
★ Ma Huan: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, ''The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores'', translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 Hakluyt Society, reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. ISBN 974-8496-78-3
★ Plunkett, R, Cannon, T, Davis, P, Greenway, P & Harding, P (2001), Lonely Planet South India, Lonely Planet, ISBN 1-86450-161-8
★ Manorama Yearbook 2003 (English Edition) ISBN 81-900461-8-7
★ Robert Charles Bristow - ''Cochin Saga'', Paico Pub. House; [2d ed.] edition (1967),
★ Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the century Insights from the CDS gulf migration studies - K. C. Zachariah, S. Irudaya Rajan
★ ''Kochi Rajyacharithram'' by KP Padmanabha Menon. P(1914)
★ ''Akhilavijnanakosam'' Malayalam Encyclopedia — D C Books Multimedia Series.
|
External links
★
Government of Kerala - Ernakulam Portal
★
Government of India Ernakulam Portal
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